Kabylie-État algérien : une confrontation politique persistante (2/2)

Source: The Conversation – France in French (3) – By Salem Chaker, Professeur émérite à l’Université d’Aix-Marseille, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU)

Deuxième partie d’un texte rassemblant une série de constats et de réflexions nourris par plus d’un demi-siècle d’observation et d’engagement – une observation que l’on pourrait qualifier de participante – au sein de la principale région berbérophone d’Algérie : la Kabylie.


Dans un précédent article, nous avons vu qu’une palette assez complète de moyens répressifs, politiques et juridiques a été utilisée par l’État algérien pour contrôler une région qui s’est régulièrement opposée à lui, opposition qui n’a d’ailleurs pas eu que des formes paroxystiques.

Il suffit de se pencher sur la sociologie électorale de la Kabylie depuis 1963 pour constater, sur la base même de chiffres officiels – dont la fiabilité est pourtant très douteuse –, qu’il existe dans cette région une défiance tenace vis-à-vis du pouvoir politique. Lors de toutes les consultations électorales, de niveau local ou national, on a pu constater en Kabylie des taux d’abstention très élevés avoisinant souvent les 80 % et un rejet quasi systématique des candidats officiels.

À l’élection présidentielle de 2019, la participation était quasi nulle en Kabylie (0,001 % à Tizi-Ouzou et 0,29 % à Béjaia, par exemple). Dans le reste du pays, la participation, sans être massive, a été significative (39,88 %). En 2024, selon les chiffres officiels, évidemment sujets à caution, le taux de participation en Kabylie (Tizi-Ouzou et Béjaia) a été inférieur à 19 %, bien en-deçà de la moitié de la moyenne de la participation au niveau national (46,10 %).

Certes, les diverses confrontations entre la Kabylie et le pouvoir central ont favorisé certaines avancées et fait évoluer la position de l’État. En particulier, le tabou pesant sur la langue et la culture berbères a été levé, avec leur reconnaissance comme « langue nationale » en 2002, l’arabe restant langue officielle, et la promotion du berbère au rang de seconde « langue officielle » en 2016.

C’est d’ailleurs la pratique permanente du pouvoir face à toutes formes de contestation : quand on ne peut pas la réprimer directement et immédiatement, on la neutralise par des concessions tactiques. C’est ce qu’a illustré le grand mouvement de contestation national de 2019-2020 (Hirak) qui a certes obtenu la mise à l’écart définitive de Bouteflika, mais qui a vu en même temps se renforcer les actions de répression de toute nature contre les « meneurs » et contre la presse.

Dans tous les cas, et quelle que soit la forme de l’opposition, on a le sentiment que celle-ci bute sur le socle inébranlable d’un pouvoir autoritaire. Toujours et partout, les méthodes du pouvoir et de ses exécutants ont été les mêmes : infiltration, division, répression et récupération.

Même les mouvements de protestation les plus massifs (Kabylie 2001-2002, aussi appelé printemps noir, où la protestation populaire sévèrement réprimée s’est soldée par près de 130 morts et des milliers de blessés ; Hirak 2019-2020) n’ont pas réussi à remettre en cause le socle du système et à imposer une évolution démocratique, même très progressive.

En fait, en dehors de ces appareils répressifs redoutables et remarquablement efficaces, le régime algérien depuis 1962 dispose d’atouts extrêmement puissants :

  • Bien sûr, en premier lieu, la rente des hydrocarbures qui lui permet souvent de calmer les ardeurs contestataires et surtout d’intégrer une grande partie des élites culturelles et politiques ;

  • En second lieu, la rente idéologique constituée à la fois de ce qui a été appelé « la rente mémorielle » fondée sur la guerre de libération, mais aussi sur ce que le régime lui-même appelle « les constantes de la nation », c’est-à-dire l’unité et l’indivisibilité de la nation, l’identité arabe et l’islam. Ces « opiums », systématiquement diffusés par l’École, les médias officiels et les mosquées, permettant d’anesthésier la société et, en cas de contestation, de légitimer la répression sont donc nombreux et durables.

La Kabylie ou « l’adversaire de l’intérieur »

Le régime algérien, comme tous les régimes autoritaires, a structurellement besoin d’ennemis, extérieurs et/ou intérieurs, pour se maintenir et légitimer son autoritarisme et ses pratiques répressives. Depuis la tentative d’invasion marocaine de 1963, qui marqua le premier conflit frontalier connu sous le nom de « Guerre des Sables », puis surtout depuis la crise du Sahara occidental à partir de 1974, l’ennemi extérieur désigné reste le voisin et « frère » marocain, ainsi que ses alliés.

Sur le temps long, l’ennemi extérieur sert surtout de prétexte pour renforcer le sentiment national face à une menace perçue. Dans la réalité, cette rhétorique n’a guère de traduction concrète : il est difficile d’imaginer les généraux algériens s’engager dans une guerre contre le Maroc, tant un tel pari militaire et politique serait incertain et pourrait compromettre la survie même du régime.

En revanche, la Kabylie reste perçue par le pouvoir central comme un adversaire intérieur, et ce depuis 1963 et l’insurrection armée de Hocine Aït Ahmed. Elle est une proie facile que l’on peut aisément désigner à la vindicte populaire, en tant qu’ennemi de la nation et de son unité. C’est pour cela que ce ressort est systématiquement utilisé depuis 1963.

On se reportera aux discours des présidents de la République algériens (Ben Bella, Boumédienne, Chadli et à ceux des gouvernements successifs à l’occasion des crises « kabyles » en 1963, en 1980, en 2001-2002 et en 2021-2022, cette dernière ciblant spécifiquement le MAK qui n’est donc qu’un cas parmi une longue série rappelée plus haut.

En fait, cette pratique antikabyle a des racines bien plus anciennes, au sein même du mouvement nationaliste algérien radical. On rappellera que le mouvement national algérien né à la fin des années 1920 était très divers, allant de courants partisans de la lutte armée (indépendantistes comme le Parti du Peuple algérien de Messali Hadj) à des mouvements réclamant une autonomie au sein de la France, comme ce fut initialement le cas de Fehrat Abbas.

Mais devant le blocage du système colonial, ce sont les partisans du passage à la lutte armée qui se sont imposés et ont constitué le FLN de 1954.

Cette tension culminera avec l’assassinat, en 1957, d’Abane Ramdane, l’un des leaders du FLN, qui prônait la primauté du politique sur le militaire.

Au départ, il s’agissait moins d’un clivage ethnique que d’une opposition idéologique sur les moyens d’action, certains militants nationalistes kabyles s’opposant à la définition arabo-islamique de la nation et manifestant un tropisme marqué en faveur d’une conception laïque de l’État.

D’où les condamnations et stigmatisations récurrentes de « berbérisme et berbéro-matérialisme ». Cette divergence idéologique évoluera rapidement vers une suspicion antikabyle largement répandue, qui s’est manifestée après l’indépendance par l’élimination ou l’éviction de tous les chefs historiques kabyles du FLN (Krim Belkacem, Hocine Aït Ahmed…).

Un contexte répressif aux racines idéologiques anciennes

Ces invariants (islam, arabité, unité et indivisibilité de la nation) sont pour l’essentiel induits par l’histoire politique contemporaine au cours de laquelle s’est constitué le nationalisme algérien. Cette donnée historique a déterminé des options idéologiques et des pratiques politiques pérennes :

  • La référence quasi obsessionnelle à l’identité arabe et musulmane de la nation ;

  • Un nationalisme exacerbé posant l’existence éternelle de la nation incarnée par l’État ;

  • Une tendance lourde à l’unanimisme et au refus de toute diversité interne, ethnique, religieuse ou linguistique.

Au plan politique, ces fondamentaux se sont traduits par :

  • Un autoritarisme marqué n’hésitant pas à recourir à toutes les formes de répression, y compris sanglantes ;

  • Une justice non indépendante ;

  • Une presse en liberté surveillée, avec des fluctuations selon les périodes ;

  • Une omniprésence, voire une omnipotence, des services de sécurité qui participent directement à l’exercice du pouvoir ;

  • Des partis politiques, depuis qu’ils ont été autorisés (1989), sous contrôle étroit de l’exécutif.

Bien qu’il ait connu des fluctuations, avec des alternances de périodes d’ouverture et de périodes de fermeture, ce contexte d’autoritarisme et de répression est structurel : il est la concrétisation au niveau de la gestion politique des orientations idéologiques fondamentales du mouvement nationaliste.

C’est donc une erreur d’analyse, ou une illusion naïve de croire qu’il y ait eu à l’indépendance un « détournement » d’un mouvement populaire progressiste et démocratique. Un détournement de la « Révolution », comme on dit souvent en Algérie, n’a eu lieu ni en 1962, ni en 1965, ni plus tard. Le régime politique qui s’est mis en place à l’indépendance, avec le tandem Ben Bella – Boumédiène, n’est que la concrétisation directe des orientations fondamentales du mouvement nationaliste.

Rares ont été les analystes qui, comme Mohamed Harbi, sans aucun doute l’historien algérien du nationalisme le mieux informé et le plus lucide, ont perçu que les prémisses du régime politique algérien post-indépendance étaient déjà en germe dans le mouvement nationaliste.

Il ne s’agit donc pas d’une confiscation par une oligarchie, mais bien de la réalisation d’une programmation qui remonte aux origines même du nationalisme.

C’est pour cela que le combat berbère, comme tous les combats démocratiques, est difficile en Algérie. Ces combats sont difficiles, voire désespérés, pour répondre au titre de l’ouvrage de Pierre Vermeren (2004).

Si l’on veut remettre en cause réellement un pouvoir « corrompu et corrupteur », comme le disait la plateforme d’El-Kseur (2001), élaborée à la suite du « printemps noir » de 2001, il faut nécessairement s’attaquer aux bases historiques et idéologiques qui fondent ce régime.

D’autant qu’à ces blocages internes s’ajoute un contexte géopolitique peu favorable à toute évolution démocratique. L’Algérie (de même que le Maroc) apparait de plus en plus comme l’un des gardiens de la frontière sud de l’Europe, avec pour fonction essentielle le contrôle de l’immigration africaine et la lutte contre l’islamisme radical. Autrement dit, le régime en place à Alger mais plus généralement les pouvoirs installés au Maghreb, rendent de grands services à l’Europe.

Dans une telle configuration, il peut compter sinon sur le soutien, du moins sur une bienveillante tolérance des pays occidentaux qui s’accommodent fort bien des violations les plus flagrantes des droits humains chez leurs auxiliaires du Sud.

The Conversation

Salem Chaker ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Kabylie-État algérien : une confrontation politique persistante (2/2) – https://theconversation.com/kabylie-etat-algerien-une-confrontation-politique-persistante-2-2-262528

Israël-Palestine : comment les religions juive et islamique sont mobilisées pour justifier la violence

Source: The Conversation – France in French (3) – By Haoues Seniguer, Maître de conférences HDR en science politique. Spécialiste de l’islamisme et des rapports entre islam et politique, Sciences Po Lyon, laboratoire Triangle, ENS de Lyon

Le conflit israélo-palestinien ne se résume en aucun cas à une guerre de religion. Pour autant, l’aspect religieux, mobilisé par bon nombre des représentants des deux parties et, souvent, par leurs soutiens extérieurs, y joue un rôle certain. Haoues Seniguer, directeur pédagogique du Diplôme d’établissement sur le monde arabe contemporain (DEMAC) de Sciences Po Lyon et chercheur au laboratoire Triangle, UMR 5206, CNRS/ENS Lyon, examine ces questions cruciales dans « Dieu est avec nous : Le 7 octobre et ses conséquences. Comment les religions islamique et juive justifient la violence », qui vient de paraître aux éditions Le Bord de l’Eau. Extraits de l’introduction.


L’enjeu d’une prise de parole sur le 7 octobre

Aborder le 7 octobre et ses répercussions relève d’un exercice périlleux, tant les enjeux sont complexes et les sensibilités à incandescence. Plusieurs raisons, plus ou moins légitimes, expliquent cette difficulté. Tout d’abord, le sujet a déjà fait l’objet de nombreuses analyses et prises de position ; dès lors, quel intérêt y aurait-il à ajouter sa voix à ce flot d’interventions, qu’elles émanent de chercheurs avertis ou de commentateurs plus ou moins éclairés ?

Ensuite, dans un contexte où le conflit israélo-palestinien suscite des débats souvent passionnels, ne risque-t-on pas, en s’y engageant, d’exacerber les tensions sans réellement parvenir à faire entendre une voix qui, à tort ou à raison, se voudrait singulière ? Chercher à analyser et à expliquer cet événement d’ampleur mondiale, dans ses développements successifs, ne revient-il pas à s’exposer au risque d’être accusé, comme l’avait autrefois suggéré le premier ministre Manuel Valls, de tenter de justifier l’injustifiable, en l’occurrence les attaques du 7 octobre et l’émotion qu’elles ont suscitée dans le monde ?

Prendre la parole comporte un risque, mais garder le silence ne revient-il pas à abdiquer sur le plan de la pensée et à renoncer à la mission du sociologue du politique ou de l’intellectuel public ? Ces derniers ont en effet le devoir d’éclairer la société, sans quoi les événements et les tragédies demeurent non seulement incompréhensibles et énigmatiques, mais risquent, par cette absence d’analyse, de se répéter et de perpétuer les incompréhensions.

Une approche non exclusiviste centrée sur le religieux dans le conflit israélo-palestinien

Le cœur de cet ouvrage est de reconsidérer la place du religieux dans l’analyse du conflit israélo-palestinien à travers trois axes principaux qui n’ont pas la prétention d’en embrasser toutes les facettes.

Primo, nous nous interrogerons sur la manière dont le référentiel islamique a été investi et mobilisé discursivement par les principaux instigateurs des attaques du 7 octobre et leurs soutiens. Cela impliquera un retour sur l’idéologie fondatrice du Hamas ainsi que sur les discours des oulémas palestiniens et arabes les plus influents qui ont pour habitude de défendre la cause palestinienne.

Secundo, nous examinerons en parallèle les discours israéliens, juifs ou judéo-israéliens, qui justifient, explicitement ou implicitement, l’intervention militaire post-7 octobre en s’appuyant sur une grammaire religieuse et des références tirées des traditions juives.

Tertio, nous analyserons les réactions discursives d’acteurs individuels et collectifs juifs et musulmans en contexte français, afin de mieux comprendre comment le religieux façonne, éventuellement, la perception et la prise de position face à ce conflit dans le choix des mots.

L’analyse se concentrera toutefois principalement sur la façon dont la religion, loin de se cantonner à des injonctions morales, spirituelles ou pacifistes, est au contraire mobilisée pour légitimer diverses formes d’actions belliqueuses, y compris les plus extrêmes. C’est un angle analytique certes sujet à débat, voire à polémique, néanmoins indispensable pour saisir comment la sacralisation d’un conflit peut favoriser des dynamiques de déshumanisation progressive de l’autre, justifiant ainsi, à des degrés divers, sa mise à l’écart, voire son élimination sans autre forme de procès.

La violence n’a guère besoin du secours de la religion pour se déployer et sévir parmi les hommes, il suffit pour en prendre la mesure de regarder du côté de la philosophie morale et politique de Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) qui explique « qu’on trouve dans la nature humaine trois causes principales de conflit : premièrement, la compétition ; deuxièmement, la défiance ; troisièmement, la gloire ». Mais la religion, elle, peut en devenir un redoutable carburant et adjuvant.

Clarifier les enjeux : éviter les lectures simplistes du religieux

Toutefois, nous souhaitons dès à présent dissiper certains malentendus sous – jacents : il ne s’agit ni de présenter la religion en général, ni le judaïsme et l’islam en particulier, comme des monothéismes intrinsèquement violents, voués à s’épanouir uniquement dans la violence la plus débridée. Une telle vision serait à la fois réductrice, erronée, injuste et dangereuse.

Par ailleurs, le référentiel religieux et ses ressources ne suffisent pas, à eux seuls, à expliquer le déclenchement et la perpétuation du conflit israélo-palestinien. Les conditions de naissance de l’État d’Israël, les structures sociales et politiques passées et présentes, ainsi que les dynamiques idéologiques dans les deux espaces jouent un rôle tout aussi déterminant dans cette confrontation sanglante vieille à ce jour, en 2025, de 77 ans. Autrement dit, il importe de ne ni minimiser ni absolutiser le rôle de la religion dans ce conflit, tant il est pris dans un enchevêtrement de facteurs historiques, politiques et territoriaux qu’il importe de démêler.

[…]

Cadre théorique et inspirations méthodologiques

Et, précisément, pour parvenir à une lecture plus juste du statut de la religion dans le conflit […], il est essentiel d’adopter un cadre théorique minimal. Certains penseurs ont déjà tracé la voie, et bien que plus nombreux, trois d’entre eux nous ont été particulièrement précieux : le philosophe américain Michael Walzer, le sociologue Mark Juergensmeyer, également américain, et le journaliste franco-israélien Charles Enderlin.

Le premier, dans la préface d’un ouvrage consacré à la politique selon la Bible, entend « examiner les idées sur la politique, les approches du gouvernement et de la loi qui s’expriment dans la Bible hébraïque ». Si la perspective adoptée par le philosophe est intéressante, notre approche s’en distingue et dépasse le seul cadre du judaïsme. En effet, notre démarche consiste à partir des discours des acteurs sociaux contemporains impliqués, à divers titres, dans le conflit avant et après le 7 octobre, qu’ils soient figures politiques ou autorités religieuses.

Nous nous attachons ainsi à analyser la manière dont ils interprètent et mobilisent les textes du corpus juif ou islamique pour légitimer leurs positions et actions. En ce sens, notre approche se situe en quelque sorte à l’opposé de la sienne. Bien que, tout comme lui, nous accordions une importance majeure aux contenus théologiques. Walzer précise d’ailleurs sa position en définissant ce qu’il ne souhaite pas entreprendre dans son étude, tandis que nous faisons précisément le choix d’explorer cette dimension dans le présent travail. Ce contraste nous donne ainsi l’opportunité de clarifier et d’affiner davantage notre propre approche :

« […] Je ne traiterai pas de l’influence des idées bibliques sur la pensée politique occidentale : ni au Moyen Âge, ni au début des Temps modernes (où les textes bibliques étaient très souvent étudiés et cités), ni chez les fondamentalistes religieux de nos jours. »

Nous admettons cependant, à l’instar de Walzer, que la Bible est peut-être avant tout un livre religieux, mais qu’elle reste également un livre politique, dans la mesure où elle fait l’objet, de manière continue, de lectures et d’interprétations politisantes qu’elle ne peut ni empêcher ni interdire.

Mark Juergensmeyer, lui, a consacré un travail « au terrorisme religieux à la fin du XXe siècle, c’est-à-dire aux actes de terreur, perpétrés à l’encontre des civils, que la religion a motivés, justifiés, organisés », en s’efforçant, écrit-il, « de pénétrer l’esprit de ceux qui commanditent ou accomplissent ces actes […] », poursuivant ainsi :

« Il ne s’agit bien évidemment pas pour moi de trouver des circonstances atténuantes à ceux qui sont capables de telles horreurs, mais bien de tenter d’appréhender leur vision des faits, de comprendre comment ils peuvent justifier leurs actes. Mon but étant de comprendre l’environnement culturel à l’origine de ces actes de violence, j’ai étudié les idées qui motivent ceux-ci ainsi que les communautés qui soutiennent les terroristes, plutôt que ces derniers eux-mêmes. »

Ces extraits sont tirés de « Dieu est avec nous : Le 7 octobre et ses conséquences. Comment les religions islamique et juive justifient la violence » d’Haoues Seniguer, qui vient de paraître aux éditions Le Bord de l’Eau.

À l’instar de Juergensmeyer, nous considérons qu’il est essentiel de souligner que les idées, notamment lorsqu’elles sont nourries par la croyance et des convictions religieuses, idéologisées ou non, jouent un rôle déterminant dans l’action, qu’elle soit accomplie ou en devenir. Il serait cependant incomplet d’en rester là. En effet, Pierre Bourdieu (1932-2002) souligne que la réussite d’un acte de langage n’est jamais purement linguistique, mais dépend des conditions sociales qui l’entourent.

En d’autres termes, la parole ne peut être efficace (ou du moins efficiente) que si elle est soutenue par des rapports sociaux, éventuellement des impulsions politiques, qui lui confèrent une légitimité et un pouvoir d’action. Dans cette perspective, nous inscrivons notre réflexion dans la continuité des travaux du sociologue français, selon lesquels un ordre ne peut acquérir une véritable valeur performative que si son émetteur dispose d’une autorité reconnue. De même, l’efficacité du discours politique repose étroitement sur le capital symbolique de l’orateur, d’autant plus cardinal s’il s’appuie sur un volume conséquent de ressources matérielles qui permettront de la sorte un pouvoir d’injonction ou d’influence encore plus décisif.

The Conversation

Haoues Seniguer ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Israël-Palestine : comment les religions juive et islamique sont mobilisées pour justifier la violence – https://theconversation.com/israel-palestine-comment-les-religions-juive-et-islamique-sont-mobilisees-pour-justifier-la-violence-263549

The triumph of the Oasis reunion: Resilience rules the day as the Gallaghers end their feud

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Ramona Alaggia, Professor, Social Work, University of Toronto

Noel and Liam Gallagher are seen on the jumbo screen at a recent concert in Edinburgh. (Lee-Anne Goodman)

The long-awaited Oasis reunion tour is a rousing success. Since launching in Wales in July, the band has been selling out shows across four continents, including two stops in Toronto.

Reviews have been glowing, and fans are thrilled not just with the music but also with the sight of Noel and Liam Gallagher showing each other genuine brotherly affection on stage — something that once seemed impossible.

This is a far cry from 2009, when Oasis broke up after an epic fallout. Noel, the elder brother, announced he could no longer put up with Liam’s drug-fuelled antics and frequent no-shows. The brothers then spent nearly 15 years estranged.




Read more:
Oasis reunion: How to stop your sibling feud from becoming a lifelong estrangement


Painful childhood

Their conflict isn’t surprising when you consider their childhood. Research shows that family violence and abuse can have lasting effects on sibling relationships.

In the Gallaghers’ case, Noel has spoken of being abused by their father, and both brothers witnessed domestic violence against their mother. Growing up with these adversities can make close family bonds harder to sustain — and may help explain the long rift between them.

So what’s made the difference? How have they managed to heal wounds and reunite? One answer may be resilience.

In my research, I’ve found that resilience is what allows some people, with the right support and circumstances, to rise above adversity and come out stronger. Back in 2017, I explored how this might apply to the Gallagher brothers, who grew up in a difficult and sometimes violent home.




Read more:
The Oasis brothers: Father’s abuse explains feud, resilience could end it


Parental influence

Resilience is a complex idea, and one way to understand it is through social learning theory. The basic idea is that we learn from the examples around us.

For the Gallaghers, growing up in a violent and chaotic home meant they were exposed to unhealthy patterns of behaviour and relationships. But at the same time, they also had a powerful positive influence in their lives through their mother, Peggy.

By ultimately leaving her abusive husband, despite the difficulties that followed, she modelled to her children that there are alternatives to destructive relationships.

This balance of negative and positive role models matters. Harmful examples can damage development, but protective role models can demonstrate healthier ways of coping, relating and moving forward.

In 2024, when the brothers announced their reunion tour, I revisited their story offering ideas on how they might get along to make the tour a success and how they might finally put their long-running feud behind them.

I suggested that counselling focused on conflict resolution could help. These approaches often include learning skills like open communication, active listening, exploring options together, collaborating, compromising, and aiming for a win-win solution.

Apologizing and avoiding casting blame are also important parts of the process. While we may never know if the Gallagher brothers were provided any of these supports, or used them to resolve their conflicts, it’s clear they’ve achieved some significant measure of reconciliation.

Noel has even recently talked about how much he enjoys being around his brother and how proud he is of him.

Not looking back in anger

The combined raw talent of the Gallagher brothers, along with the drive and persistence to form a band, captured the hearts of a generation of music-lovers and is continuing to attract new and younger fans around the world.

After years apart, their return to the stage shows that reconciliation is possible and that even the most fractured relationships can find a way forward.

Watching the Gallaghers side by side on stage, frequently laughing and embracing, it seems clear that resilience, combined with a genuine desire to reconcile, has helped bring them back together.

Their reunion is more than a comeback tour; it’s a story of overcoming adversity that speaks to a universal hope. They’re showing that even long-standing family conflicts can be healed.

The Conversation

Ramona Alaggia’s studies have been funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

ref. The triumph of the Oasis reunion: Resilience rules the day as the Gallaghers end their feud – https://theconversation.com/the-triumph-of-the-oasis-reunion-resilience-rules-the-day-as-the-gallaghers-end-their-feud-263789

L’individualisme, fondement démocratique, selon Tocqueville

Source: The Conversation – France in French (3) – By Camille Roelens, Chercheur en sciences de l’éducation, Université de Lille

Alexis de Tocqueville, alors ministre des affaires étrangères en 1848, par Théodore Chassériau (1819-1856). Théodore Chassériau, CC BY

Notre démocratie est en crise, comment la réinventer ? Que nous enseignent ceux qui, au cours des âges, furent ses concepteurs ? Septième volet de notre série consacrée aux philosophes et à la démocratie, avec Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859). Pour le penseur français, l’individualisme et l’égalisation des conditions de vie sont deux piliers essentiels de la démocratie.


Parmi les interprètes des sociétés démocratiques, Alexis de Tocqueville occupe une place à part. Il nous lègue un concept synthétique permettant de comprendre l’évolution des sociétés dans lesquelles nous vivons, celui d’individualisme démocratique.

Dans le premier tome de son ouvrage majeur, De la démocratie en Amérique, publié en 1835 sur la base d’un voyage aux États-Unis, Tocqueville s’approche du concept, sans utiliser le terme :

« S’il vous semble utile de détourner l’activité intellectuelle et morale de l’homme sur les nécessités de la vie matérielle, et de l’employer à produire le bien-être ; si la raison vous paraît plus profitable aux hommes que le génie ; si votre objet n’est point de créer des vertus héroïques, mais des habitudes paisibles ; si vous aimez mieux voir des vices que des crimes, et préférez trouver moins de grandes actions, à la condition de rencontrer moins de forfaits ; si, au lieu d’agir dans le sein d’une société brillante, il vous suffit de vivre au milieu d’une société prospère ; si, enfin, l’objet principal d’un gouvernement n’est point, suivant vous, de donner au corps entier de la nation le plus de force ou le plus de gloire possible, mais de procurer à chacun des individus qui le composent le plus de bien-être et de lui éviter le plus de misère ; alors égalisez les conditions et constituez le gouvernement de la démocratie. »

L’essentiel est donc là : ce que Tocqueville observe en Amérique et qu’il nomme démocratie est une organisation où le maximum de droits et de libertés sont garantis à l’individu grâce à une prospérité et une stabilité globale de la société.

Démocraties modernes et sociétés aristocratiques

L’individualisme permet de saisir la spécificité des démocraties occidentales modernes par rapport à ce que furent les démocraties grecques antiques.

Tocqueville écrit en ce sens :

« L’individualisme est une expression récente qu’une idée nouvelle a fait naître. Nos pères ne connaissaient que l’égoïsme. L’égoïsme est un amour passionné et exagéré de soi-même, qui porte l’homme à ne rien rapporter qu’à lui seul et à se préférer à tout. L’individualisme est un sentiment réfléchi et paisible qui dispose chaque citoyen à s’isoler de la masse de ses semblables et à se retirer à l’écart avec sa famille et ses amis ; de telle sorte que, après s’être ainsi créé une petite société à son usage, il abandonne volontiers la grande société à elle-même. »

Les démocraties antiques ou les petites républiques modernes restaient inscrites dans un type de culture et un régime de valeurs (honneur, hiérarchie…) pris dans ce que Tocqueville nomme « les temps aristocratiques ». Les temps démocratiques, eux, sont porteurs d’autres mœurs, où les aspirations individuelles sont autres, de même que leurs comportements.

Pour Tocqueville, ces changements sont irrésistibles : il s’agit de les comprendre, d’agir au mieux dans ce nouveau cadre, et non de s’opposer à ce cours providentiel de l’histoire. Une fois la démocratie installée, on peut espérer son bon fonctionnement ou craindre ses pathologies, mais non viser un retour aux modèles passés. La pensée de Tocqueville est donc anti-réactionnaire et anticonservatrice par excellence et par logique interne.

Démocratie et égalité des conditions

Le concept d’individualisme démocratique nous permet également de disposer d’une compréhension de la démocratie qui, bien loin de la limiter ou même de la centrer sur un certain type de régime politique (où les dirigeants sont élus plutôt que désignés de manière héréditaire, par exemple), en fait un mode de vie englobant. Ce projet humain général n’est jamais pleinement achevé, il engage l’ensemble des manières d’être soi-même, de vivre en société, d’entrer en relation, sur la base de ce que Tocqueville appelle « l’égalité des conditions ». Selon lui, l’avènement de la démocratie en procède. Les citoyens antiques étaient égaux entre eux, mais étaient une minorité dominante d’une société à ordres et/ou à castes. En retour, la démocratisation nourrit l’exigence d’égalité entre les humains, et même au-delà de ce que lui-même imaginait en son temps – les inégalités qu’il percevait comme « naturelles » et non « politiques », par exemple entre les hommes et les femmes ou entre les Blancs et les non-Blancs, s’étant révélées, au XXe siècle, l’objet de luttes politiques d’émancipation.

Ainsi, dès l’introduction de son ouvrage, Tocqueville fait de l’égalité des conditions « le fait générateur dont chaque fait particulier semblait descendre […] point central où toutes mes observations venaient aboutir ». Il remarque partout

« l’influence prodigieuse qu’exerce ce premier fait sur la marche de la société ; il donne à l’esprit public une certaine direction, un certain tour aux lois ; aux gouvernants des maximes nouvelles, et des habitudes particulières aux gouvernés. Bientôt je reconnus que ce même fait étend son influence fort au-delà des mœurs politiques et des lois, et qu’il n’obtient pas moins d’empire sur la société civile que sur le gouvernement : il crée des opinions, fait naître des sentiments, suggère des usages et modifie tout ce qu’il ne produit pas ».

Égalisation des conditions et individualisation démocratique sont ainsi deux manières de désigner une dynamique transformatrice globale mue par le fait de se rapporter aux autres êtres humains sous le registre du semblable et non d’une altérité radicale, malgré différences et inégalités de fait – il y a des riches et des pauvres, des maîtres et des serviteurs, mais ces derniers ont plus en commun (en tant qu’humains) qu’en écart, malgré tout.

Tocqueville nous propose également une pensée globale de la modernité y compris dans ses dimensions économiques (ce qu’il va appeler la passion du commerce, la société marchande ou la quête du profit et du bien-être, culturels, technologiques). Tout cela concourt à l’avènement de la démocratie comme forme de vie et fait système autour de ce qu’il appelle le partage général de certaines passions démocratiques, comme celles du bien-être, du progrès, de l’entreprise et de l’innovation individuelle ou plus collective. On reconnaît bien ici les axiomes de base du libéralisme moderne, que Tocqueville contribua avec quelques autres (Locke, Constant, Mill…) à poser.

Il faut noter que Tocqueville lui-même a un rapport ambivalent à ce phénomène, le jugeant globalement irrésistible mais cherchant parfois des pistes pour le canaliser, l’estimant tantôt pacificateur et dynamisant, tantôt potentiellement désorganisant et dissolvant au plan de la vie politique en particulier. Sa crainte essentielle était qu’à l’absolutisme royal succède l’absolutisme de l’État, sur fond d’apathie civique des individus. Cette crainte a tenaillé ensuite nombre de libéraux de la guerre froide, lecteurs de Tocqueville, face à l’État totalitaire.

Le sacre contemporain de l’individualisme démocratique

On peut considérer que le monde démocratique contemporain – celui des sociétés occidentales depuis la fin des années 1960 – est une société des individus où les droits fondamentaux des personnes, leurs prétentions légitimes à l’autonomie et au bien-être prennent acte de l’individualisme démocratique et le sacrent. Le développement conjoint d’États-sociaux redistributifs et de garanties solides – non seulement des droits fondamentaux des individus, mais aussi des moyens concrets de leur exercice – est in fine ce qui a permis la stabilisation démocratique. Dans ce modèle, des inégalités demeurent, mais les opportunités moyennes pour chacun d’avoir une vie prospère, confortable et « choisie », ont atteint des niveaux inédits dans l’histoire humaine.

Ainsi, on peut conclure que ce n’est pas en tournant le dos à l’individualisme que les démocraties contemporaines pourront faire face aux régimes autoritaires qui les menacent. L’avenir de nos démocraties réside, au contraire, dans le perfectionnement du cadre fondamental posé par Tocqueville et ses contemporains (épanouissement des individus, garantie des droits fondamentaux, progrès vers l’égalité).

The Conversation

Camille Roelens ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. L’individualisme, fondement démocratique, selon Tocqueville – https://theconversation.com/lindividualisme-fondement-democratique-selon-tocqueville-261830

Is your diet influencing your dreams? Here’s what our research says about food and nightmares

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Jade Radke, PhD Student, Behavioral Sustainability Lab, University of British Columbia

Have you ever wondered if a bizarre dream was caused by something you ate the night before? If so, you’re not alone. We all have strange or unsettling dreams now and then, and when we do, we want to know what might cause them.

For centuries, people have believed that what and when they eat can influence their dreams. A prominent example of this can be found in the early 20th-century comic strip Dream of the Rarebit Fiend, in which characters often blamed their strange dreams on having eaten a cheese dish — like Welsh rarebit — the night before.

But even though folklore has long suggested that food and dreams are connected, scientific research into this notion has been limited.

A few exploratory surveys have provided preliminary, suggestive results. One study from 2007 found that people who ate more organic food reported having more vivid and bizarre dreams than those who consumed more fast food.

Similarly, a 2022 survey linked fruit consumption to more frequent dream recall, high fruit and fish intake to more lucid dreams, and sugary food consumption to more nightmares. And in our 2015 study, we found that nearly 18 per cent of participants endorsed the idea that what they ate influenced their dreams, with dairy being the most frequently cited culprit.

As a follow-up to that study, we recently conducted an online survey with 1,082 Canadian psychology students that asked them about their food habits, general health, sleep quality and dreams. We tested several hypotheses about how diet and food sensitivities might influence dreaming — including possible influences on the severity of nightmares.

What we found

Just over 40 per cent of participants told us that certain foods either worsened or improved their sleep quality. Around five per cent believed food affected their dreams, with desserts, sweets and dairy being the most frequently cited culprits.

People with food allergies or gluten intolerance were more likely to perceive that food influenced their dreams, while participants with lactose intolerance were more likely to report that food worsened their sleep.

We also found that participants with a food allergy or lactose intolerance reported more frequent and severe nightmares. Interestingly, the frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms, such as abdominal pain and bloating, was associated with both lactose intolerance and nightmares, thereby possibly explaining the relationship between the two.

These findings support a growing body of evidence suggesting a connection between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system (the gut-brain axis). What is novel about our findings is that they suggest gut discomfort can manifest psychologically during sleep as nightmares.

This connects to developing research examining the relationship of diet to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), one symptom of which is frequent nightmares. While research in this area has focused on the relationship of overall dietary patterns to PTSD, our findings suggest that specific foods, such as dairy and sweets, could exacerbate nightmares in particular.

This suggests that treatments for PTSD might usefully include an assessment of dietary habits, allergies and intolerances, and making dietary changes.

While our research provides insight into how food might affect dreaming, the results are correlational. Experiments are needed to test the extent to which certain foods can impact dreams.

The next steps could involve controlled experiments that test what happens when people consume certain trigger foods, such as cheese that contains lactose versus cheese that does not contain lactose, especially among those with lactose intolerance or who have frequent nightmares. Similar experiments could be done for participants with various types of food allergies.

Some practical takeaways

Beyond dreaming, our findings, combined with what we know from previous research, suggest a few things you could do to help minimize food-related sleep disruptions:

  1. Avoid eating late at night, especially heavy, sugary or spicy foods. We found that evening eating was associated with more negative dream content and poorer sleep quality.

  2. If you’re lactose intolerant, try avoiding dairy before bed or switching to lactose-free options. For example, hard, aged cheeses tend to be lower in lactose than soft, fresh cheeses.

  3. If you have food allergies, consider minimizing your intake of culprit foods before bed. Fears and anxieties associated with potential allergic reactions could creep into your dreams.

  4. Keep track of any foods that seem to influence your sleep or dreams, and experiment with removing them for intermittent periods of time to see if they influence your sleep or dream quality.

In general, eating a nutrient-dense, balanced diet with fibre, fruits, vegetables and lean proteins could help support sleep or dream quality. Overall, the main takeaway is to listen to your body. If certain foods or dietary habits consistently lead to poor sleep or strange dreams, it’s worth taking these symptoms seriously.

The Conversation

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Is your diet influencing your dreams? Here’s what our research says about food and nightmares – https://theconversation.com/is-your-diet-influencing-your-dreams-heres-what-our-research-says-about-food-and-nightmares-260796

What, exactly, is space-time?

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Daryl Janzen, Observatory Manager and Instructor, Astronomy, University of Saskatchewan

Few ideas in modern science have reshaped our understanding of reality more profoundly than space-time — the interwoven fabric of space and time at the heart of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.

Space-time is frequently described as the “fabric of reality.” In some accounts, this fabric is referred to as a fixed, four-dimensional “block universe” — a complete map of all events, past, present and future.

In others, it’s a dynamic field that bends and curves in response to gravity. But what does it really mean to say that space-time exists? What kind of thing is it — is space-time structure, substance or metaphor?

The heart of modern physics

These questions aren’t just philosophical. They sit at the heart of how we interpret modern physics and quietly shape everything from how we understand general relativity to how we imagine time travel, multiverses and our origins.

These questions inform the emergence of space-time itself and radical new proposals that treat it as the universe’s memory. And yet the language we use to describe space-time is often vague, metaphorical and deeply inconsistent.




Read more:
Why do metaphors of space help us understand time?


Austrian-British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein once warned that philosophical problems arise when “language goes on holiday.” Physics, it turns out, may be a prime example.

Over the last century, familiar words such as “time,” “exist” and “timeless” have been repurposed in technical contexts without examining what baggage they carry from everyday speech.

This has led to widespread confusion about what these terms actually mean.

The problem with language

In the philosophy of physics, particularly in a view known as eternalism, the word “timeless” is used literally. Eternalism is the idea that time doesn’t flow or pass — that all events across all time are equally real within a four-dimensional structure known as the “block universe.”

rows of blocks
Eternalism understands that everything, everywhere, exists atemporally and all at once.
(Rick Rothenberg/Unsplash), CC BY

According to this view, the entire history of the universe is already laid out, timelessly, in the structure of space-time. In this context, “timeless” means that the universe itself does not endure or unfold in any real sense. There is no becoming. There is no change. There is only a block, and all of eternity exists atemporally within it.

But this leads to a deeper problem. If everything that ever happens throughout eternity is equally real, and all events are already there, what does it actually mean to say that space-time exists?

An elephant in the room

There’s a structural difference between existence and occurrence. One is a mode of being, the other, of happening.

Imagine there’s an elephant standing beside you. You’d likely say: “This elephant exists.” You might describe it as a three-dimensional object, but importantly, it is a “three-dimensional object that exists.”

In contrast, imagine a purely three-dimensional elephant that flashes into the room for an instant: a cross-sectional moment in the life of an existing elephant, appearing and disappearing like a ghost. That elephant doesn’t really exist in the ordinary sense. It happens. It occurs.

An existing elephant endures over time, and space-time catalogues every moment of its existence as a four-dimensional world line — an object’s path through space and time throughout its existence. The imaginary “occurring elephant” is just one spacelike slice of that tube; one three-dimensional moment.

Now apply this distinction to space-time itself. What does it mean for four-dimensional space-time to exist in the sense that the elephant exists? Does space-time endure in the same sense? Does space-time have its own set of “now” moments? Or is space-time — the manifold of all the events that happen throughout eternity — merely something that occurs? Is space-time simply a descriptive framework for relating those events?

Eternalism muddies this distinction. It treats all of eternity — that is, all of space-time — as an existing structure, and takes the passage of time to be an illusion. But that illusion is impossible if all of space-time occurs in a flash.

To recover the illusion that time passes within this framework, four-dimensional space-time must exist in a manner more like the three-dimensional existing elephant — whose existence is described by four-dimensional space-time.

Every event

Let’s take this thought one step further.

If we imagine that every event throughout the universe’s history does “exist” within the block universe, then we might ask: when does the block itself exist? If it doesn’t unfold or change, does it exist timelessly? If so, then we’re layering another dimension of time onto something that was supposed to be timeless in the literal sense.

To make sense of this, we could construct a five-dimensional framework, using three spatial dimensions and two time dimensions. The second time axis would let us say that four-dimensional space-time exists in exactly the same way we commonly think of an elephant in the room as existing within the three dimensions of space that surround us, the events of which we catalogue as four-dimensional space-time.

At this point, we’re stepping outside established physics that describes space-time through four dimensions only. But it reveals a deep problem: we have no coherent way to talk about what it means for space-time to exist without accidentally smuggling time back in through an added dimension that isn’t part of the physics.

It’s like trying to describe a song that exists all at once, without being performed, heard or unfolding.

From physics to fiction

This confusion shapes how we imagine time in fiction and pop science.

In the 1984 James Cameron film, The Terminator, all events are treated as fixed. Time travel is possible, but the timeline cannot be changed. Everything already exists in a fixed, timeless state.

In the fourth film in the Avengers franchise, Avengers: Endgame (2019), time travel allows characters to alter past events and reshape the timeline, suggesting a block universe that both exists and changes.

That change can only occur if the four-dimensional timeline exists in the same way our three-dimensional world exists.

But regardless of whether such change is possible, both scenarios assume that the past and future are there and ready to be travelled to. However, neither grapples with what kind of existence that implies, or how space-time differs from a map of events.

Understanding reality

When physicists say that space-time “exists,” they are often working within a framework that has quietly blurred the line between existence and occurrence. The result is a metaphysical model that, at best, lacks clarity, and at worst obscures the very nature of reality.

None of this endangers the mathematical theory of relativity or the empirical science that confirms it. Einstein’s equations still work. But how we interpret those equations matters, especially when it shapes how we talk about reality and how we approach the deeper problems in physics.

These understandings include attempts to reconcile general relativity with quantum theory — a challenge explored both in philosophy and popular science discussions.

Defining space-time is more than a technical debate — it’s about what kind of world we think we’re living in.

The Conversation

Daryl Janzen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. What, exactly, is space-time? – https://theconversation.com/what-exactly-is-space-time-259630

Until Haiti tackles systemic corruption and bad governance, its people will remain impoverished

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Ruolz Ariste, Adjunct Professor, School of Public Policy and Administration, Carleton University

Haiti’s Patriotic Congress for National Rescue, launched by the academic community and civil society organizations, recently held a nearly month-long period of consultations across Haiti and its diaspora over the worsening crisis in the Caribbean nation.

It concluded on June 27 with 25 proposals on three points: 19 on the security crisis and six on reforms to public governance and endless transitions.

While these three points are key for a national rescue and are interconnected, they don’t carry the same weight. Based on the number of proposals, the security crisis takes priority over governance reforms and endless power transitions.

As a public policy and administration expert, I believe governance reforms are crucial because Haiti’s insecurity, lawlessness and constant political transitions are rooted in poor governance and corruption.

Corruption at the core

Excessive corruption is the cancer that eats away at Haiti. It hinders private investment, slows the production of goods and services, and triggers social unrest, criminal activity and poverty. It’s the root cause of the Haitian crisis, not the symptom.

In his book The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality, British-American economist and Nobel laureate Angus Deaton argues that a well-functioning national government is what allows people to escape misery.

His views echo a study by researchers from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank that found an increase in corruption significantly reduces the income growth of impoverished people.

This research clearly illustrates that it’s not poverty that breeds corruption, but rather the reverse. In other words, to truly tackle poverty, we must go to the source of the problem and tackle corruption.

I’ve made the same argument in my self-published book Contemporary Events Related to Equity and Inclusion: A focus on Blacks, the Haitian diaspora, and locals.

It’s clear, therefore, that most of the recommendations from the Patriotic Congress should focus on bad governance and corruption.

Up close and personal with Haitian corruption

Corruption is the norm in Haiti, not the exception. It is rooted in the country’s institutions and remains systemic. The US$2 billion Petro Caribe scandal is a major case in point.

Well-intended investors trying to do business in Haiti often face myriad corrupt officials. I have personal experience with this phenomenon.

I launched a company in Haiti, Biogaz pour une Solution Intégrée, with some well-meaning classmates and colleagues who specialize in the science of soil management and crop production.

When founding and presiding over the business, we’d hoped for political stability due to the election of President Jovenel Moïse in 2017.

Instead, we faced unscrupulous offers, even from a former university classmate who had become a high-ranking member of the government. Blatant corruption in the form of elected individuals or civil servants requesting substantial kickbacks was ubiquitous. The company did not survive this hostile environment.

The point I want to make here is that some people in Haiti exhibit corrupt behaviours without any discomfort or maybe even without realizing it.

Moïse, meantime, was assassinated four years later. Several suspects have been indicted in his murder, including his widow Martine, former acting prime minister Claude Joseph and former police chief Léon Charles.

Haiti’s painful descent

Three specific conditions are required to attract private investments in any country: political stability, good governance and anti-corruption measures. With bad governance and systemic corruption, political stability becomes elusive. This again emphasizes the importance of focusing on improved governance to vanquish systemic corruption and lift Haiti out of its current and longstanding misery.

As the first Black independent nation and one that once supported many other Caribbean and Latin American countries in their own quests for independence, it’s troubling that Haiti is experiencing such a dire situation.

The country is the poorest in the Western Hemisphere, with its GDP per capita declining by two per cent a year from 2014 to 2024.




Read more:
Haiti on the brink: Gangs fill power vacuum as current solutions fail a nation in crisis


The situation calls for urgent action. But it will not be easy.

National entities need to face facts about systemic corruption and stop playing the blame game. They must reform their institutions, accept accountability for managing public funds and eradicate corruption. International allies and organizations need to set up, not with boots on the ground, but with institutional reforms, mostly in the judiciary system.

Specifically, the mandate of the International Criminal Court should be extended to make substantial money theft and embezzlement a prosecutable international financial crime, one with the same rank as genocide.

Educating citizens about corruption

This will happen only with the mobilization of civil society to force changes in both national and international institutions. A massive educational campaign is also required among the Haitian population, from elementary schools all the way to university level, to educate and train citizens about what constitutes corruption and what are its disastrous impacts.

Taking steps to eradicate systemic corruption will also address the Haitian insecurity crisis and the endless power transitions because they’re so closely connected.

Haiti needs to build on its glorious history of resilience and resistance to tackle this challenging task, turn the tide and offer its citizens prosperous and peaceful lives and a much brighter future.

The Conversation

Ruolz Ariste does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Until Haiti tackles systemic corruption and bad governance, its people will remain impoverished – https://theconversation.com/until-haiti-tackles-systemic-corruption-and-bad-governance-its-people-will-remain-impoverished-262264

How businesses deflect responsibilities for addressing modern slavery in their supply chains

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Kam Phung, Assistant Professor of Business & Society, Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser University

Despite growing awareness and legislation aimed at eradicating modern slavery — including forced labour, bonded labour and other extreme forms of human exploitation — efforts to combat the issue remain largely ineffective.

The United Kingdom, the first to enact a modern slavery act in 2015, is a case in point. The latest government figures show 5,690 potential victims in the U.K. were referred to the Home Office between April and June. This is the highest quarterly figure since the national referral mechanism began in 2009.

This could be attributed to a multitude of reasons, including an actual rise in exploitation, growing awareness of the issue and more training being provided for frontline services. But the effectiveness of transparency and disclosure laws in achieving substantive change in businesses’ behaviours has long been questioned.




Read more:
Ten years after the Modern Slavery Act, why has this ‘world-leading’ legislation had so little impact?


Canada also has a modern slavery act, Fighting Against Forced Labour and Child Labour in Supply Chains Act, which came into effect in 2024. It requires certain private-sector and government entities to report on efforts to prevent and reduce the risk the issues.




Read more:
Canada’s Modern Slavery Act is the start — not the end — of efforts to address the issue in supply chains


It’s still too early to tell if Canada’s approach has amounted to any real change. However, since its onset, experts have cautioned that such a transparency and disclosure law “falls short of what is required to make large corporations exercise due diligence to prevent labour abuse from occurring within their supply chains.”

Deflecting responsibilities

When confronted with modern slavery risks, some companies justify their inaction or adopt ineffective measures that do little to address the problem.

In a recent book chapter published in the The Routledge Companion to Responsible Business, my co-researchers and I explore three rationalizations used by businesses and professionals to deflect responsibility for addressing modern slavery and other pressing societal issues, even as pressure to do so increases.

Our insights emerged from interviews we conducted with a range of businesses operating in Canada with global supply chains leading up to Canada’s enactment of modern slavery legislation. They represent some, but not all, of the ways businesses deflect responsibilities for addressing modern slavery.

Deflection involves redirecting attention, blame or responsibility away from oneself to avoid taking accountability or confronting uncomfortable truths and negative feelings. Rather than addressing an issue, focus is shifted elsewhere, enabling an organization to get away with inaction or sub-par action that can enable modern slavery.

In everyday organizational life, these deflections can be hard to spot. They manifest in subtle ways, and may sound reasonable on the surface but ultimately serve to sidestep meaningful responsibility.

Perceptual rationalizations

“Perceptual rationalization” occurs when businesses resist addressing modern slavery because they fear negative perceptions and consequences.

In our interviews, some businesses worried that acknowledging the issue might be seen as an admission of guilt, making their company vulnerable to media criticism and public backlash.

To some companies, modern slavery is considered so toxic and stigmatized that they prefer to avoid the topic altogether. In the face of media coverage on linkages to modern slavery, some businesses fear that bringing attention to the issue will become a public relations nightmare.

This is despite evidence that broader society may, in fact, praise businesses for detecting and publicly disclosing such information.

Ironically, this suggests the media’s role as “watchdogs” of corporate behaviour may actually deter some businesses from taking action rather than deter socially irresponsible behaviours.




Read more:
Modern slavery is endemic in global supply chains. Companies should be praised – not shamed – for detecting it


Structural rationalizations

“Structural rationalizations” happen when businesses claim that industry factors like regulations or systemic factors absolve them of responsibility.

For example, company representatives in highly regulated industries like transportation argued their supply chains are already monitored and therefore have a “low risk” of modern slavery — despite using high-risk materials like rare minerals, including conflict minerals, in their parts.

Meanwhile, others claimed that modern slavery is a “system issue” that requires government intervention and changes in consumer behaviours, not corporate action.

While acknowledging the systemic nature of the problem is important, we found some companies use this perspective to shift responsibility to external entities like governments, consumers and other businesses instead of taking proactive steps.

In this way, the systemic nature of issues such as modern slavery, and other issues like climate change, may actually be leveraged by some as a way to avoid doing their part to address them. System issues are all-hands-on-deck issues. Everyone needs to be doing their part.

Territorial rationalizations

“Territorial rationalization” was one of the most common rationalizations in our interviews. It occurs when individuals or organizations argue modern slavery falls outside their scope of responsibility, leaving it for others to address.

At the individual level, someone might say their performance indicators don’t include addressing the issue, so it’s outside the scope of their work. At the organizational level, companies may claim the issue is simply irrelevant to them. However, such dismissals are often based on false assumptions or misunderstandings.

Some companies, for example, believe that because their products are high quality goods, they are shielded from the issue despite legitimate risks.

Yet, modern slavery is not confined to low-quality goods. In 2024, for instance, the Democratic Republic of Congo accused Apple subsidiaries in France and Belgium of using conflict minerals. Similarly, Italy’s competition authority is investigating claims of worker exploitation linked to Armani and Dior.

Taking ownership means shifting from “that’s not my job” to “how can I help solve this?” while still maintaining reasonable boundaries.

Transforming inaction into accountability

The fight against modern slavery in supply chains reveals a troubling paradox: the very factors that should drive corporate action, like moral urgency and the systemic nature of the issue, often become excuses for inaction and deflection.




Read more:
Here’s what businesses and consumers can do to tackle modern slavery in supply chains


Progress requires business leaders to embrace accountability within their sphere of influence. The path forward demands three critical shifts:

  1. Business education must evolve to prepare professionals, managers and executives with moral frameworks and practical tools to address systemic challenges. They must be taught to view social issues as an opportunity rather than a challenge or threat.

  2. Companies must resist the temptation to hide behind the systemic nature of problems and instead focus on what they can control and influence.

  3. Stakeholders like leadership teams and regulators must design incentive structures that encourage engagement, not avoidance.

Successful managers and businesses recognize that social responsibility is not about shouldering blame for every systemic issue, but contributing to solutions within their operational reach.

An important first step is being able to spot deflections on the ground, whether it involves you, a colleague or any other stakeholder, and understand how it can perpetuate any given issue.

The Conversation

Kam Phung receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), Humanity United Action, and the Ford Foundation.

ref. How businesses deflect responsibilities for addressing modern slavery in their supply chains – https://theconversation.com/how-businesses-deflect-responsibilities-for-addressing-modern-slavery-in-their-supply-chains-262859

250,000 Ethiopians migrate every year: what drives them and what needs to change

Source: The Conversation – Africa – By Girmachew Adugna, Advisory Board Member, Research Center for Forced Displacement and Migration Studies, Addis Ababa University

Migration is increasingly replacing the traditional, education-focused life paths that shaped previous generations in Ethiopia. In the past, becoming a civil servant after completing secondary and tertiary education was seen as both socially respected and economically rewarding.

Although access to education at all levels has expanded in recent decades, its value has diminished as many graduates struggle to find employment and decent livelihood opportunities. In Ethiopia, individuals under the age of 30 comprise approximately 70% of the total population, and the urban youth unemployment rate stood at around 25.3% as of 2022.

The consequences are often tragic.

Irregular migration involving overcrowded and unseaworthy boats is responsible for a rising number of deaths at sea. In the first six months of 2025 alone, more than 350 migrants lost their lives while attempting the crossing over the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea from the Horn of Africa. A tragic incident on 3 August claimed the lives of around 102 migrants, most of whom were Ethiopian.

I have been studying Ethiopian migration for more than a decade. In this article, I explore why many people choose irregular migration over legal pathways. I also consider what the Ethiopian government should be doing to manage the increasing number of young people choosing to leave the country for work.

Ethiopia serves as a country of origin, transit and destination for migrants. About 250,000 Ethiopians migrate annually.

Given the human toll of irregular migration, more must be done to tackle its root causes.

Based on my research findings, creating decent job opportunities in the country is crucial, so that young people can see a future without the need to leave. At the same time, for those who do wish to migrate, legal pathways must be made more accessible, safer and more efficient.

Equally important is expanding these migration pathways beyond domestic work to include skilled and semi-skilled workers and sectors that typically employ male migrants in destination countries. Those sectors include construction, agriculture and driving.

The drivers

In the early and mid-2000s, young men could migrate legally to Gulf countries. Saudi Arabia was the preferred destination for jobs such as driving and security work. Ethiopia imposed a temporary ban on labour migration to the Gulf countries from late 2013 to early 2018 over reported abuses and deaths. During this period, many individuals migrated through irregular channels, and those patterns became entrenched over time.

The number of women migrants is increasing, however, now accounting for a third of migrants on these routes.

The driving causes of migration from Ethiopia have always been complex. Factors include limited job and livelihood opportunities, conflict and instability, high unemployment, pressure from family and peers, hopes for a better life abroad, and a sense of hopelessness about a decent future at home.

In some parts of the country, a culture of migration has taken root, with migration perceived as a quick and effective way to earn income and generate broader benefits for both migrants and their families. Within these communities, having a family member abroad is increasingly regarded as a symbol of social status.

Lack of opportunities is central. It is evidenced by high youth unemployment and scarcity of quality jobs. Rural poverty, slow industrial development, and obstacles to starting businesses intensify the push factors.




Read more:
Half a million Ethiopian migrants have been deported from Saudi Arabia in 5 years – what they go through


Secondly, the ongoing conflict in the Amhara region and parts of Oromia, and escalating tensions in Tigray have created insecurity and disrupted livelihoods. This makes public services inaccessible and prompts many young people to migrate in search of safety and stability. Young people in conflict-affected regions face a stark reality: either join armed conflicts that seem never-ending or struggle to make a living.

Thirdly, rules set by government that allow Ethiopians to migrate legally have tightened. Standard requirements for applicants involve numerous documents and pre-departure training. The documents include ID cards, passports, educational qualifications, health certificates and a certification of competence. Some of these are not readily accessible for many aspiring migrants. The cost of a passport, for instance, is prohibitive for most. So instead, people are driven to irregular and often perilous migration options.

Legal migration offers limited opportunities. Existing bilateral agreements with Middle Eastern countries primarily cover domestic work, which largely absorbs women.

The routes

The route that has become common over the past decade involves crossing the Red Sea to reach Saudi Arabia through war-torn Yemen. Known as the eastern route, this path is one of the most dangerous, claiming the lives of many young men and women.

Since 2014, the International Organisation for Migration has recorded 76,524 migrant deaths worldwide. Of these, over 1,098 occurred by drowning at sea off Yemen along the eastern route. In 2021, the Ethiopian Central Statistics Service reported that over 51,000 Ethiopian migrants had gone missing after leaving the country in the previous five years.

Ethiopian migration from southern regions to South Africa – known as the southern route – is the second largest irregular migration corridor. The last is the northern route, towards Europe via Sudan, Libya and the Mediterranean Sea.

The answers

Now more than ever, Ethiopia needs to create greater economic opportunities at home. This can be done by expanding opportunities in the agriculture, industrial and service sectors. The government should also support skills training and entrepreneurship together with access to basic services in the countryside.

Secondly, legal pathways must be expanded. This can be done by establishing more bilateral labour agreements. Currently, Ethiopia has agreements with Saudi Arabia, UAE, Jordan, Lebanon and Kuwait. It is close to finalising one with Oman. But these agreements mostly cover domestic work.




Read more:
Young middle-class Nigerians are desperate to leave the country: insights into why


In contrast, the Philippines has signed labour agreements with over 30 countries. These include several European countries and cover a broader range of opportunities.

Third, these agreements must expand the job opportunities that young people can apply for, for example, skilled and semi-skilled jobs in construction, retail and agriculture. This would offer young Ethiopians more diverse employment opportunities abroad.

Legal migration pathways should be streamlined, time-efficient, and accessible to the majority of aspiring migrants. Equally important is the need for targeted, tailored, and comprehensive awareness-raising initiatives at the household, school, and community levels to ensure informed decision-making around migration.

The Conversation

Girmachew Adugna does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. 250,000 Ethiopians migrate every year: what drives them and what needs to change – https://theconversation.com/250-000-ethiopians-migrate-every-year-what-drives-them-and-what-needs-to-change-263465

The Gambia’s new constitution has stalled again – 5 reasons why and what that means for democracy

Source: The Conversation – Africa (2) – By Satang Nabaneh, Director of Programs, Human Rights Center; Research Professor of Law, University of Dayton School of Law, University of Dayton

The Gambia’s post-dictatorship democratic transition recently suffered a setback. The Constitution of the Republic of The Gambia (Promulgation) Bill, 2024 failed to pass its second reading in the national assembly.

Passing the bill required the support of at least 75% of The Gambia’s 58-member parliament, including the speaker. Now, there’s uncertainty over the country’s democratic reforms.

This leaves The Gambia governed by the 1997 constitution drafted under Yahya Jammeh’s military junta. The 1997 constitution was widely seen as a tool for executive overreach. It didn’t have term limits, stalled key democratic reforms and lacked sufficient protection for human rights and democratic principles.

Failure to pass the new constitution is a setback to the “New Gambia” agenda, a campaign promise of the 2016 ruling coalition, which included the drafting of a new constitution and ensuring accountability for past human rights violations, and could lead to renewed political tension.

Proponents hailed the proposed new constitution as a step towards institutionalising checks and balances and strengthening civil liberties. Critics pointed to a lack of transparency, the absence of broad stakeholder consultation, and specific controversial clauses.

Those clauses included the removal of a retroactive presidential term limit, the weakening of checks and balances by reducing parliamentary oversight on appointments, and the potential erosion of judicial independence.

I am a Gambian legal scholar, researcher and human rights practitioner and I have been tracking The Gambia’s journey to solidify its democracy since the dictatorship of Jammeh. In this article, I present five of the most important things to know about this constitutional reform effort and why it failed to advance.

New constitution triggers and why it failed

1. Unfulfilled search for a new foundation:

A truly democratic constitution has been a central promise since the ousting of former president Jammeh in 2017.

An initial 2020 draft, the product of extensive nationwide consultations, also failed to pass. There were disagreements over provisions like retroactive presidential term limits. But the 2024 bill continues to face political and social hurdles.

The 1997 constitution presents a paradoxical approach to democratic governance, particularly in its mechanisms for political transition and constitutional amendment. For example, it has stringent requirements for constitutional change: a three-quarters majority vote from all national assembly members across two readings.

It also requires a national referendum, with 50% voter participation and 75% approval.

A high bar for constitution amendments can protect against impulsive alterations. But it also puts disproportionate power in the hands of a parliamentary super majority. This politicises constitutional reform, making it contingent on party allegiance and strategic manoeuvring rather than a broad national consensus.

An arrangement like the one in The Gambia could hinder the natural evolution of democratic governance and limit the nation’s capacity to adapt its basic law to the changing will of the people.

2. Unresolved concerns over presidential powers:

A key reason the 2024 draft faced such strong opposition related to presidential powers. The 2020 draft sought a two-term limit with a retroactive clause (meaning President Adama Barrow would not be able to run in the 2026 election). But the 2024 draft removed this retroactive counting.

This remained a point of contention, fuelling fears of potential term limit manipulation. More broadly, the bill proposed removing parliamentary oversight for all appointments, including ministers, the Independent Electoral Commission and independent institutions.

It also sought to grant the president more power over national assembly members. These proposals were viewed as undue centralisation of authority and a regression from the 1997 constitution.

3. Unaddressed threats to judicial independence:

The bill’s stated goal of judicial independence was undermined by certain provisions. The 2024 draft removed the requirement that the national assembly confirm the appointment of the chief justice and Supreme Court judges.

It also removed the citizenship requirement for the chief justice. Given The Gambia’s recent history where foreign judges on politically appointed, renewable contracts served as a tool of repression and eroded public trust, these changes therefore raised alarm about judicial impartiality and the erosion of oversight.

The bill left out Chapter V on “Leadership and Integrity” which was in the 2020 draft. This chapter, which outlined a framework for public officer conduct and aimed at combating corruption, was seen as vital for accountability.

4. Contentious provisions on human rights and civil liberties:

While the 2024 draft generally aimed to modernise fundamental rights and introduce additional socio-economic protections, it also contained specific restrictions that human rights advocates criticised. These included an increase in police detention periods from 48 to 72 hours, and perceived limitations on the rights to education, to petition public officials, and to freedom of assembly.

Provisions affecting citizenship by marriage (doubling the waiting period for foreign spouses to gain citizenship) and limiting media ownership and operation to Gambian citizens sparked debates over inclusivity and media freedoms.

These clauses likely contributed to the insufficient votes for the bill to pass.

5. Public fatigue amid the bill’s failure:

The failure of the 2024 constitution draft bill to pass second reading reflects a complex and polarised public discourse. While the government championed the bill as essential for stability and a modern republic, the main opposition, the United Democratic Party, opposed it.

Numerous civil society organisations expressed concerns about the diluted democratic safeguards and expanded presidential powers. In the end, a perceived lack of genuine public participation prevented its advancement.

The way forward

This outcome shows a division among the public. Some are tired of the drawn-out constitutional reform process. They want stability now. Others want to keep pursuing a genuinely transformative constitution.

This division is made worse by widespread disillusionment due to economic hardships and slow progress with various reforms since the post-dictatorship transition began.

The failure of the 2024 bill leaves The Gambia in a state of uncertainty about its foundational legal framework.

As I have noted elsewhere, it’s time for all to commit to an inclusive reform process.

The Conversation

Satang Nabaneh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. The Gambia’s new constitution has stalled again – 5 reasons why and what that means for democracy – https://theconversation.com/the-gambias-new-constitution-has-stalled-again-5-reasons-why-and-what-that-means-for-democracy-261809