Un fossile d’embryon découvert en Afrique du Sud prouve que les ancêtres des mammifères pondaient des œufs

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Julien Benoit, Associate professor in Vertebrate Palaeontology, University of the Witwatersrand

Reconstitution artistique d’un embryon de Lystrosaurus Artiste: Sophie Vrard, CC BY

Il y a entre 280 et 200 millions d’années vivait un groupe d’animaux à l’origine des mammifères, humains inclus : les thérapsides. Ils ont été décrits pour la première fois il y a plus de 150 ans à partir de fossiles découverts en Afrique du Sud, et de nombreux autres spécimens ont été mis au jour depuis lors.

James Kitching, l’un des chasseurs de fossiles sud-africains les plus talentueux du XXe siècle, a mis au jour plusieurs milliers de crânes et squelettes de thérapsides dans les roches du Karoo (une région semi-aride de l’intérieur du pays), ainsi que des œufs de dinosaures fossilisés. Néanmoins, ni lui ni aucun paléontologue après lui n’ont jamais trouvé d’œufs de thérapsides.

Ils devaient pourtant exister, car certains mammifères (l’ornithorynque et les échidnés) pondent bien des œufs. Mais Kitching a commencé à douter que les thérapsides en aient jamais pondu : peut-être, supposait-il, étaient-ils déjà vivipares (donnant naissance à des petits vivants), comme la plupart de leurs descendants mammifères.

Mes collègues et moi même, qui étudions les animaux disparus et les environnements dans lesquels ils vivaient il y a des millions d’années, venons de publier un nouvel article dans lequel nous décrivons, pour la première fois, l’œuf fossile contenant un embryon d’un ancêtre des mammifères vieux de 250 millions d’années. Il prouve enfin que les thérapsides étaient bel et bien ovipares. Cette découverte apporte un éclairage nouveau sur les stratégies de reproduction et de survie des thérapsides.

Main tenant ce qui ressemble à un œuf de pierre
L’œuf sur le point d’être scanné au synchrotron de Grenoble.
Fourni par l’auteur, CC BY

Un mystère vieux de 20 ans

L’œuf fossile et l’embryon que nous avons décrits ont été découverts près d’Oviston, dans la province du Cap-Oriental, en Afrique du Sud, par John Nyaphuli, un paléontologue de Bloemfontein, en 2008. Il est conservé dans les collections du Musée national de Bloemfontein. Nous savions qu’il appartenait à une espèce qui a vécu il y a entre 252 et 250 millions d’années, appelée Lystrosaurus, dont les adultes étaient de la taille d’un cochon, avaient la peau nue, un bec semblable à celui d’une tortue et deux défenses saillantes pointant vers le bas. Mais à sa decouverte, personne ne savait si il s’agissait réellement d’un œuf.

La raison pour laquelle il a fallu 20 ans pour prouver qu’il en était bien un est que la coquille n’est pas préservée. Seul un embryon recroquevillé est visible. S’il y avait une coquille, elle devait probablement être molle (faite de protéines) car seuls les dinosaures les plus évolués et les oiseaux pondent des œufs à coquille dure. De plus, les squelettes complets recroquevillé ne sont pas rares dans le Karoo, y compris chez des specimens adultes. Alors, comment prouver que ce jeune spécimen a été fossilisé à l’intérieur d’un œuf ?

La réponse à cette question est venue d’une étude basée sur la technologie de pointe de l’Installation européenne de rayonnement synchrotron à Grenoble, en France. Là-bas, nous avons utilisé une puissante source de rayons X pour obtenir des images de l’intérieur des os de l’embryon. Grâce à ce traitement, le fossile a révélé tous ses secrets, notamment son stade de développement embryonnaire.

Reconstitution 3D de l’embryon basée sur le scan synchrotron réalisé à l’ESRF.
Fourni par l’auteur, CC BY

Nous avons découvert que les mâchoires inférieures de son bec n’étaient pas complètement soudées. Cette caractéristique développementale n’est observée que chez les embryons de tortues et d’oiseaux modernes, longtemps avant l’éclosion (leur permettant, à la naissance, d’avoir un bec soit suffisamment robuste pour se nourrir). Cela signifie que notre embryon de Lystrosaurus recroquevillé était mort in ovo (dans l’œuf), blotti dans sa coquille molle et aujourd’hui disparue. C’était la preuve que les paléontologues attendaient !

Grâce à l’examen synchrotron de sa mâchoire inférieure, nous avons enfin pu démontrer que cet embryon était bien celui d’un bébé Lystrosaurus dans son œuf non éclos.

Un célèbre survivant

Le Lystrosaurus est un thérapside herbivore (mangeur de plantes) célèbre pour avoir survécu à la « crise Permien-Trias», une crise biologique survenue il y a 252 millions d’années durant laquelle 90 % de tous les êtres vivants sur Terre ont péri. La vie a failli disparaître, ce qui en fait le deuxième événement le plus important de l’histoire de la vie sur Terre après l’origine de la vie elle-même.

La manière dont le Lystrosaurus a survécu à cet événement reste un mystère intrigant, mais l’œuf fournit quelques indices. Il montre d’abord que l’animal pondait des œufs relativement volumineux. Les œufs de grande taille sont produits par des espèces dont l’embryon se nourrit de vitellus (le jaune) à l’intérieur de l’œuf, alors que celles pondant de petits œufs, comme les monotrèmes (l’ornithorynque et l’échidné), nourrissent leurs petits après la naissance avec du lait. La grande taille de son œuf implique que le Lystrosaurus n’allaitait donc pas ses petits.

En ce qui concerne sa stratégie de survie, cela indique deux choses supplémentaires. Premièrement, cela signifie que l’œuf était moins sujet à la dessiccation (assèchement). Plus l’œuf est gros, plus sa surface est petite (toutes proportions gardées), de sorte que les œufs de Lystrosaurus perdaient moins d’eau à travers leur coquille molle que ceux d’autres espèces de la même époque. Compte tenu de l’environnement sec qui régnait pendant et immédiatement après l’extinction, cela constituait un avantage majeur, d’autant plus que les œufs à coquille dure n’évolueront pas avant au moins 50 millions d’années.

Deuxièmement, un gros œuf implique que le Lystrosaurus était probablement précoce, ce qui signifie que les bébés naissaient à un stade avancé de leur développement. Les nouveau-nés de Lystrosaurus étaient assez grands pour se nourrir seuls, fuir les prédateurs et atteignaient la maturité plus rapidement, ce qui leur permettait de se reproduire tôt.

Une croissance rapide, une reproduction précoce et une grande prolifération étaient les secrets de la survie du Lystrosaurus.

L’identification de cet œuf fossile nous aide ainsi à mieux comprendre l’origine de la biologie reproductive et de la lactation chez les mammifères, ainsi que la stratégie de survie du Lystrosaurus face à la crise biologique la plus dévastatrice que notre planète ait connue. Elle nous aide aussi à mieux saisir comment les espèces modernes pourraient faire face à la sixième extinction de masse des espèces qui se déroule actuellement.

The Conversation

Julien Benoit bénéficie d’un financement de la plateforme « African Origins » du DSTI-NRF et du Centre d’excellence GENUS en paléosciences.

Jennifer Botha ne travaille pas pour, ne conseille pas, ne détient pas d’actions et ne reçoit pas de financement de la part d’une entreprise ou d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune affiliation pertinente en dehors de son poste universitaire.

Vincent Fernandez travaille pour le synchrotron de l’ESRF et s’est vu attribuer du temps de faisceau à l’ESRF pour cette expérience.

ref. Un fossile d’embryon découvert en Afrique du Sud prouve que les ancêtres des mammifères pondaient des œufs – https://theconversation.com/un-fossile-dembryon-decouvert-en-afrique-du-sud-prouve-que-les-ancetres-des-mammiferes-pondaient-des-oeufs-280479

US raises the stakes in the Strait of Hormuz

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Jonathan Este, Senior International Affairs Editor, Associate Editor, The Conversation

This is the text from The Conversation UK’s World Affairs Briefing email. Sign up here to receive weekly analysis of the latest developments in international relations, direct to your inbox.


The US is reported to be greatly expanding the scope of its naval blockade of Iran, asserting the right to board and seize any ships it believes to be carrying “contraband” or “conditional contraband” bound for Iran from anywhere on the open seas. Respected maritime news and intelligence agency, Lloyd’s List, says this means that “almost any industrial cargo bound for Iran could plausibly be intercepted”. This will considerably raise the stakes in an already fraught situation.

Opinions are already divided as to how effective this “blockade of a blockade” is likely to be. The US president made the decision on April 12 to “seek and interdict every vessel in International Waters that has paid a toll to Iran. No one who pays an illegal toll will have safe passage on the high seas.” The intention was to make clear to Tehran that they were ultimately not in control of the strait and certainly wouldn’t be allowed to profit by imposing a charge on ships it allowed to pass through.

The problem for the US is that traffic through the strait remains largely at a standstill. Reuters’ live tracker of traffic in the strait suggests a considerable gathering of vessels on either side of the waterway, with very little evidence of ships actually transiting the strait.

It is, writes maritime strategy expert Basil Germond, of Lancaster University, a question of who can withstand more pain from the economic fallout. So the US plan to seek and seize ships wherever they are on suspicion of carrying almost any sort of industrial cargo is clearly aimed at increasing that pain for Iran.




Read more:
US naval blockade of Strait of Hormuz: what it involves and the risks attached


But one of the dangers is how far and how fast the situation might escalate. There was a fraught moment on April 14 when it appeared as if a Chinese-linked tanker had transited the strait. The Rich Starry, registered in landlocked Malawi, is Chinese owned and crewed. Would the US try to board the boat? How would China react if it did?

China buys about 90% of Iranian oil and is one of the few countries whose tankers were getting in and out of Iranian ports unchallenged, writes Tom Harper, an expert in Xino-US relations at the University of East London. US seizure of any Chinese tankers would be bound to considerably ratchet up tensions between the two superpowers.

As it turned out, the Rich Starry turned back in the Gulf of Oman and re-entered the strait without being stopped or challenged by the US. But the new US operating instructions could well make a confrontation more likely. Harper explores the implications of the US-Iran conflict for relations between Washington and Beijing in the run-up to Donald Trump’s planned state visit to the Chinese capital next month.




Read more:
US blockade of Strait of Hormuz ratchets up tensions with China ahead of Trump visit to Beijing


Meanwhile the conflict between Israel and Hezbollah in Lebanon continues unabated. Ambassadors from the two countries met in Washington this week, where they resolved to hold direct, high-level talks. The US president has said that the leadership of the two countries would also speak, “for the first time in 34 years”, but the office of Lebanon’s president Joseph Aoun denied any knowledge of the arrangement, saying that a ceasefire would need to be in place before any talks could take place.

Whether the US president has the leverage over Israeli prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, to make that happen is another matter. The US and Israel certainly have one of the strongest partnerships of any two countries, write Bamo Nouri and Inderjeet Parmar of City St George’s, University of London. The US was the first country to formally recognise the state of Israel in 1948 and Washington has since provided the Jewish state with more than US$300 billion (£220 billion).

Wars against Soviet-aligned Arab states in the 1970s showed how Israel could be an important cold war bulwark against the spread of communism in the Middle East.

Israel’s influence in the US is often put down to the strength of the Jewish lobby there. But it is the perceived strategic value of the relationship, Nouri and Parmar believe, that is the key factor: “When core US strategic interests have been at stake, US policy has overridden lobbying pressure”.




Read more:
Why the US and Israel’s alliance endures – even when it strains


A reset for Hungary-EU relations?

To Hungary, where the 16-year prime ministership of Viktor Orbán came to a close in a landslide election on April 12. The two-thirds majority won by Orbán’s opponent, Péter Magyar, gives the incoming PM the power – if he so chooses – to reverse some of the more illiberal measures implemented by the authoritarian Orbán.

It was a resounding victory: 138 seats to Magyar’s Tisza party to just 55 for Orbán’s Fidesz. All the more remarkable when you consider how the comprehensive state capture of Hungary’s media over Orbán’s tenure and the ferocious propaganda campaign the outgoing prime minister waged, using every organ of state to boost his chances.

Alexander Bor, an expert in propaganda and election manipulation at Central European University, explains that Orbán’s campaign hit two snags: the people’s disillusionment at Hungary’s parlous economy and a well-run campaign by a credible challenger in Magyar.




Read more:
Viktor Orbán’s election loss shows the limits of his propaganda machine


Magyar’s victory went down well in Brussels, writes Michael Toomey, an expert in EU democracy at the University of Glasgow. Orbán’s warm relationship with Russian president, Vladimir Putin, was no secret. He did all he could to block EU aid packages for the defence of Ukraine and at one point was even revealed to be passing on information from closed EU ministerial meetings with his Russian friends.

“Had Orbán managed to prevail in the recent elections, the relationship between the EU and Hungary is likely to have reached a breaking point”, Toomey concludes.




Read more:
Orbán’s downfall is a positive for EU-Hungary relations – but the reset will not be smooth


Trump vs Pope Leo

One relationship which appears to be under a degree of strain is that between the US president and Pope Leo XIV. Leo, the first pope born in the US, has been a highly visible and vehement opponent of the US war with Iran, calling for peace and condemning “those who wage war”, whose hands he said, quoting scripture, “are full of blood”.

Trump replied, not quoting scripture, that the pope was “weak on crime” and “terrible for Foreign Policy,” adding that he was only elected to the papacy because he is American and the Catholic church “thought that would be the best way to deal with President Donald J. Trump.”

Massimo D’Angelo, an expert in the Catholic church’s diplomacy, explains why the US president is likely to come off worse in this particular contretemps.




Read more:
‘I’m not a politician’: why the clash with Pope Leo could prove dangerous for Donald Trump



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The Conversation

ref. US raises the stakes in the Strait of Hormuz – https://theconversation.com/us-raises-the-stakes-in-the-strait-of-hormuz-280850

Hongrie : après la défaite d’Orban, un retour à l’Europe ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Pierrick Bruyas, Enseignant-chercheur au Centre Européen de recherche sur le Risque, le Droit des Accidents Collectifs et des Catastrophes (CERDACC), Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA)

Le nouveau gouvernement de Péter Magyar hérite d’institutions verrouillées par le pouvoir sortant et d’une conjoncture économique compliquée. Il va se rapprocher nettement de l’UE, sans pour autant totalement trancher avec certaines positions de Viktor Orban, notamment sur le dossier de la relation avec l’Ukraine.


Après seize années au pouvoir, Viktor Orban, 62 ans, chef du parti Fidesz (classé dans le camp de la droite radicale et siégeant au Parlement européen au sein du groupe « Patriotes pour l’Europe » aux côtés du RN français, du FPÖ autrichien ou encore des Espagnols de Vox) vient, à l’issue des législatives du 12 avril dernier, de concéder sa défaite face au parti Tisza, formation de droite (elle siège au Parlement européen avec le Parti populaire européen) menée par Péter Magyar, 45 ans. Selon ce dernier, la Hongrie ne vient pas de connaître une simple alternance politique, mais un « changement complet de régime ».

La large victoire de Tisza (52 % des suffrages, contre 39 % pour le Fidesz et un peu moins de 6 % pour le parti d’extrême droite « Notre patrie ») lui offre une majorité des deux tiers des sièges au Parlement (137 sièges sur 199), la plus large jamais obtenue depuis la transition démocratique post-communiste. Le nouveau gouvernement dispose d’un mandat exceptionnel pour conduire la transition qu’il a promise vers l’après- « démocratie illibérale ». Mais les attentes citoyennes sont à la hauteur de cette victoire écrasante.

Une victoire révélatrice d’un rejet profond d’Orban

Plusieurs facteurs expliquent l’ampleur de ce basculement. Lors des législatives précédentes, en 2022, une partie importante de l’électorat avait déjà manifesté un profond désenchantement à l’égard du gouvernement en place, ce qui ne s’était pas traduit par une défaite du Fidesz, notamment en raison de la fragmentation de l’opposition. Quatre ans plus tard, plusieurs petites formations ont choisi de ne pas se présenter ou de retirer certains candidats afin de favoriser l’émergence d’une alternative crédible, ce qui a permis à Tisza de s’imposer nettement comme principal rival du pouvoir.

Le contexte international a également aussi été décisif : en 2022, l’invasion à grande échelle de l’Ukraine par la Russie avait démarré récemment, ce qui avait permis à Viktor Orban de structurer sa campagne autour d’un discours sécuritaire. Il affirmait alors qu’un changement de gouvernement exposerait Budapest à un risque d’implication directe dans le conflit. Ce registre discursif a été employé de nouveau en 2026, mais il semble avoir perdu de son efficacité après plusieurs années de guerre : une large partie de l’électorat n’y adhère plus. Parallèlement, les critiques récurrentes d’Orban à l’égard de l’Union européenne n’ont pas affaibli l’attachement des Hongrois à leur appartenance à celle-ci. Selon l’Eurobaromètre de l’automne 2025, 82 % des Hongrois considèrent que faire partie de l’UE est une « bonne chose », soit une proportion supérieure à la moyenne des citoyens de l’UE partageant cette opinion, qui s’élève à 74 %.

Dans ce contexte, la campagne de Tisza s’est centrée sur des enjeux internes du pays, perçus comme prioritaires par les électeurs. En effet, l’économie hongroise est en stagnation depuis plusieurs années, et la qualité des services publics — notamment dans les domaines de la santé, de l’éducation ou encore des services sociaux et des infrastructures — se dégrade progressivement. Ces évolutions sont souvent expliquées par le mode de gouvernance d’Orban, fondé sur des pratiques de népotisme et de clientélisme dont les effets sont aujourd’hui très visibles. Le triomphe de Tisza aux législatives du 12 avril, qui constitue la plus large victoire enregistrée par un parti dans l’histoire récente de la Hongrie, traduit non seulement une désapprobation du gouvernement sortant, mais aussi une recomposition des attentes politiques.

L’un des éléments saillants de cette recomposition tient à la dimension générationnelle du vote. Les jeunes électeurs ont ainsi apporté un soutien particulièrement prononcé à Tisza. Ayant grandi dans le cadre de l’intégration européenne, la Hongrie ayant adhéré à l’UE en 2004, ils sont particulièrement attachés aux bénéfices concrets qui y sont liés, tels que la liberté de circulation ou l’accès à l’espace européen d’enseignement et de recherche.

Si ces générations ont longtemps manifesté une certaine distance vis-à-vis de la politique partisane, l’évolution récente de leur mobilisation semble indiquer une prise de conscience accrue des enjeux politiques nationaux. Les scènes de célébration observées à Budapest, qui ont rassemblé des dizaines de milliers de personnes majoritairement jeunes, témoignent de cette dynamique, dans une atmosphère décrite comme euphorique, comparable à celle d’une victoire nationale au football…

Un droit constitutionnel favorable à la démocratie, mais un État de droit abîmé par les années Fidesz

La Hongrie est un État unitaire organisé sous la forme d’une démocratie parlementaire : le vote qui compte le plus, c’est celui des élections législatives, pour partie majoritaire à un tour dans des circonscriptions, et pour partie proportionnel. Ainsi, comme dans la plupart des pays d’Europe, le chef du parti ayant obtenu le plus de sièges au Parlement devient premier ministre.

Le président de la République, élu par l’Assemblée nationale, ne possède quasiment aucun pouvoir et exerce une magistrature essentiellement morale et protocolaire. En théorie, le président a la possibilité de ne pas accepter de ratifier une loi et d’exiger que le Parlement l’étudie à nouveau — ce que les juristes appellent un « veto suspensif ». Ces prérogatives n’ont toutefois quasiment pas été utilisées depuis l’arrivée de Viktor Orban à la tête du pays en 2010. Ce système, typiquement européen dans son architecture, est parfaitement conforme aux standards démocratiques.

Cela étant, la Hongrie s’est indubitablement fait remarquer en Europe en raison de ce qu’Orban a lui-même contribué à théoriser comme « la démocratie illibérale ». Pour résumer, cette doctrine s’appuie sur le principe que le pouvoir provient du peuple et doit donc être exercé par le peuple et pour le peuple, quitte à opprimer si nécessaire les minorités ou à ne pas respecter la séparation des pouvoirs. C’est ainsi que Viktor Orban s’est employé à réduire l’indépendance de la justice, à mettre la main sur les médias, à restreindre les droits des minorités sexuelles ou ethniques.




À lire aussi :
Hongrie : une relation avec l’Europe à l’épreuve de l’homophobie d’État


Beaucoup, comme ce fut le cas pour une majorité de Hongrois pendant les années Fidesz, peuvent voir dans ce principe un retour salutaire aux sources du projet démocratique. Le débat français est d’ailleurs assez révélateur de la confusion générale de ces concepts. Pourtant, proclamer « le pouvoir du peuple, par le peuple, pour le peuple » tout en acceptant — soyons schématiques — que 90 % d’une population maltraite les 10 % restants est contraire à la dignité humaine et aux droits des minorités concernées. Ne pas respecter la limitation ou la séparation des pouvoirs au nom « du peuple », même s’il est consentant, c’est rendre plus difficile, voire impossible, pour ce peuple de changer d’avis, de procéder à une alternance politique, ou de s’exprimer librement pour critiquer le pouvoir en place. C’est cet héritage que le nouveau gouvernement va chercher à détricoter pendant son mandat.

Dans son discours de victoire, Péter Magyar a déclaré qu’il avait l’intention de transformer la pratique constitutionnelle et d’amorcer la transition vers une « démocratie libérale ». Il a appelé le gouvernement sortant à se limiter à une gestion transitoire des affaires courantes et à éviter toute décision susceptible de contraindre l’action du futur exécutif ou d’aggraver la situation économique. Il a également invité les principaux responsables institutionnels cooptés par Orban — notamment au parquet, à la Cour constitutionnelle, à la Cour suprême (Curia), à l’autorité des médias publics et à l’office de la concurrence — à se retirer volontairement.

Dans cette perspective, Magyar a indiqué que le président du pays, Tamás Sulyok — un proche d’Orban —, devrait lui confier la formation du gouvernement avant de démissionner de son plein gré ou d’être démis démocratiquement par une mise en accusation par les deux tiers des députés (ce dont Magyar sait pouvoir disposer a priori, comme il l’a expliqué en face-à-face au président lors d’une entrevue le 15 avril, Sulyok lui ayant indiqué comprendre cela). Par ailleurs, s’agissant de la responsabilité des acteurs du régime sortant, notamment de très hauts fonctionnaires qui se seraient compromis et les oligarques s’étant enrichis de façon suspecte, ils seront contraints de rendre des comptes. Pour ces élites économiques, Magyar entend créer deux agences nationales dédiées à la récupération, à la protection des actifs publics et la lutte contre corruption.

Le retour à une relation équilibrée avec l’UE

Les orientations annoncées incluent également un renforcement de la coopération avec les instances européennes et internationales. La Hongrie devrait rejoindre le Parquet européen — un instrument de l’Union européenne de lutte contre la corruption financière et basée sur l’adhésion volontaire des États — et intensifier sa collaboration avec l’Office européen de lutte anti-fraude (OLAF).

Péter Magyar, en sa qualité de député européen (depuis 2024), connaît bien l’UE, mais il n’est pas pour autant parfaitement aligné avec toutes les positions du Parlement européen ou de la Commission — ce que l’on n’exige d’ailleurs d’aucun représentant d’État membre. Magyar, qui a d’ailleurs été membre du Fidesz jusqu’en 2023, est par exemple opposé à la livraison d’armes à l’Ukraine, adopte une posture pour le moins ambivalente quant à la création d’un prêt européen d’aide à ce voisin envahi (le refusant d’abord en conférence de presse, puis semblant l’accepter le lendemain), et s’est opposé à l’idée d’une procédure d’adhésion accélérée de l’Ukraine à l’UE.

Le chef de la nouvelle majorité parlementaire a également développé une réflexion axée sur une coopération plus régionale, notamment dans le groupe de Visegrád — une organisation intergouvernementale réunissant la Hongrie, la Pologne, la Tchéquie et la Slovaquie. L’avenir dira comment il concrétisera sa volonté de rapprochement régional, mais cette tendance, chez des responsables politiques plutôt favorables à l’UE, à promouvoir des régions transnationales fortes au sein d’une Europe forte constitue indéniablement un élément à suivre.

Les premiers déplacements annoncés par Magyar — à Varsovie, Vienne et Bruxelles — sous-entendent d’ailleurs une volonté de réinscription rapide dans les circuits régionaux et européens. Dans le même temps, il a appelé à une forme de pacification interne, se posant comme le représentant de l’ensemble de tous les Hongrois, y compris des électeurs du Fidesz, tant dans le pays qu’auprès des minorités hongroises établies à l’extérieur du pays, dans les régions frontalières.

Une multitude de défis à relever

Le futur gouvernement devra se confronter à un écosystème patiemment et profondément modifié par le Fidesz : une Cour constitutionnelle fidèle à Orban (les parallèles avec la situation de la Cour suprême américaine ne manquent ici pas de pertinence) ; un président de la République au rôle certes principalement protocolaire mais très proche du premier ministre sortant ; des administrations structurées par des fonctionnaires choisis par le pouvoir précédent ; un parquet largement perçu comme peu enclin à engager des poursuites à l’encontre des proches du régime ; des autorités indépendantes — en matière de concurrence, de régulation des médias ou de supervision économique — dont les dirigeants ont été nommés pour des mandats longs ; ainsi qu’un paysage médiatique en grande partie aligné sur les positions gouvernementales (la première prise de parole de Magyar devant la presse a d’ailleurs été réservée aux médias indépendants et étrangers).

À ces défis s’ajoutent une conjoncture difficile, avec un déficit budgétaire élevé (environ 6 %) et une économie stagnante, sans oublier un contexte international marqué par la guerre au Proche-Orient, le blocage du détroit d’Ormuz, le désinvestissement de l’OTAN (dont fait partie la Hongrie), et plus de 17 milliards d’euros de fonds européens qui restent pour l’instant bloqués.

Tout reste sans doute à faire en Hongrie, et le retour vers le modèle libéral prendra très certainement du temps. La configuration issue des urnes ouvre néanmoins, pour la première fois depuis de nombreuses années, une fenêtre d’opportunité réelle pour engager ce mouvement.

The Conversation

Pierrick Bruyas a reçu des financements de Horizon Europe.

Péter Balogh a reçu des financements de National Research, Development and Innovation Office et Horizon Europe.

ref. Hongrie : après la défaite d’Orban, un retour à l’Europe ? – https://theconversation.com/hongrie-apres-la-defaite-dorban-un-retour-a-leurope-280748

Comment les reines bourdons peuvent-elles survivre plusieurs jours sous l’eau ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Sabrina Rondeau, Postdoctoral Researcher in Pollinator Ecology, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

Une reine bourdon accumule des réserves nutritives en prévision de l’hivernage.
Lucas Borg-Darveau

Les colonies de bourdons dépendent entièrement de la survie des reines pendant l’hiver. Une découverte surprenante montre qu’elles peuvent respirer sous l’eau et survivre à une immersion prolongée.


Chez la plupart des espèces de bourdons, les reines passent l’hiver enfouies sous terre dans une petite cavité de la taille d’un raisin. Pendant six à neuf mois, elles attendent le retour du printemps dans un état proche du sommeil profond appelé diapause. Mais avec le changement climatique, les pluies deviennent plus intenses dans de nombreuses régions et les reines qui hivernent sous terre sont de plus en plus exposées aux risques d’inondation.

Heureusement, ces insectes peuvent survivre plusieurs jours sous l’eau sans se noyer. De façon inattendue, nos nouvelles recherches montrent qu’elles y parviennent grâce à un processus qui leur permet de passer jusqu’à huit jours immergées tout en continant à respirer.

Tout a commencé par un accident de laboratoire

Nous avons d’abord découvert que les reines bourdons en hivernage pouvaient survivre à une immersion grâce à un accident.

Lors d’une expérience menée à l’Université de Guelph (Ontario, Canada), certains des tubes dans lesquels les reines passaient l’hiver dans un réfrigérateur de laboratoire se sont accidentellement remplis d’eau. Au départ, nous avons pensé que les reines étaient mortes. Mais après avoir vidé l’eau, elles ont commencé à bouger et se sont rapidement rétablies, suggérant que les reines bourdons étaient en mesure de survivre à une immersion.

Une reine bourdon respirant sous l’eau.
(Charles-Antoine Darveau)

Nous avons alors conçu une expérience de suivi impliquant 143 reines du bourdon commun de l’Est (Bombus impatiens). Nos résultats ont confirmé qu’il ne s’agissait pas d’un simple hasard : les reines ont bel et bien résisté à une immersion complète pendant près d’une semaine.

Restait une question intrigante : comment cet insecte pollinisateur terrestre peut-il survivre sous l’eau ? Pour y répondre, il nous fallait adopter une nouvelle approche et étudier leur physiologie.

Au cœur de la colonie

La reine est le cœur d’une colonie de bourdons : elle est la seule capable d’assurer la génération suivante. Si l’on entend souvent le bourdonnement des ouvrières qui visitent les fleurs en été, les reines, elles, sont rarement visibles. Elles passent en effet une grande partie de la saison à l’intérieur du nid, où elles pondent des œufs qui donneront naissance aux ouvrières puis, plus tard dans l’été, aux mâles et aux nouvelles reines.

Lorsque l’hiver arrive, la plupart des membres de la colonie meurent et seules les reines nouvellement produites survivent. Après l’accouplement, elles se dispersent et s’enfouissent dans le sol, chacune s’installant dans une petite cavité où elle entre en diapause. Quand le printemps revient enfin, les reines qui ont survécu à ce long sommeil souterrain sortent de leur abri et entreprennent la tâche cruciale de fonder une nouvelle colonie.

Respirer sous l’eau

Pour comprendre comment ces reines peuvent survivre à une immersion, nous avons étudié leur respiration et leur métabolisme lors d’une expérience subséquente menée à l’Université d’Ottawa (Ontario, Canada). Pendant la diapause, les reines sont déjà dans un mode d’économie d’énergie extrême. L’énergie nécessaire à leur survie — leur taux métabolique — chute de plus de 99 %. Lorsqu’elles sont immergées, leurs besoins énergétiques diminuent encore davantage. Avec des besoins en oxygène aussi faibles, respirer sous l’eau devient possible.

Mais comment avons-nous pu déterminer que les reines respirent réellement sous l’eau ? Une méthode consiste à mesurer les échanges de gaz avec l’eau environnante. C’est ce que nous avons fait, et les résultats sont frappants : pendant huit jours d’immersion, les reines ont continué à consommer de l’oxygène et à libérer du dioxyde de carbone sous l’eau.

Une reine de bourdon dans son hibernaculum (terrier souterrain).
(Sabrina Rondeau)

De nombreux insectes aquatiques utilisent une astuce simple pour respirer sous l’eau. Une fine couche d’air adhère à leur corps, ce qui leur permet d’utiliser leur système respiratoire habituel — le système trachéen. L’oxygène présent dans l’eau environnante se diffuse progressivement dans cette couche d’air. Les reines bourdons s’appuient probablement sur un mécanisme similaire.

Toutefois, la respiration sous l’eau ne suffit pas à couvrir entièrement leurs besoins énergétiques. Pour combler ce manque, les reines produisent aussi une partie de leur énergie grâce au métabolisme anaérobie — un processus qui ne nécessite pas d’oxygène. Cette voie produit de l’acide lactique, que nous avons effectivement détecté chez les reines pendant l’immersion.

Ces adaptations physiologiques leur permettent de survivre sous l’eau, mais elles ont un coût. Après être remontées à la surface, les reines doivent passer plusieurs jours à récupérer, en dépensant bien plus d’énergie que si elles n’avaient jamais été immergées.

Une résilience inattendue

Les reines bourdons passent l’hiver seules, enfouies sous terre et dépendantes des réserves d’énergie accumulées pour survivre jusqu’au printemps. Leur capacité à tolérer plusieurs jours d’immersion — et même à respirer sous l’eau — révèle une résilience inattendue face à l’un des dangers de cette vie souterraine.

C’est un point crucial, car les colonies de bourdons dépendent entièrement de la survie des reines qui hivernent. Si une reine meurt pendant l’hiver, la colonie qu’elle aurait fondée au printemps suivant ne verra jamais le jour.

Cette capacité à survivre à une immersion pourrait jouer un rôle important — et jusqu’ici largement sous-estimé — dans la résilience des populations de bourdons menacées. Même pour des insectes aussi familiers et relativement bien étudiés, il reste donc encore beaucoup à découvrir sur les façons parfois surprenantes dont ils parviennent à faire face aux défis environnementaux.

The Conversation

Sabrina Rondeau a reçu des financements du Conseil de recherches en sciences naturelles et en génie du Canada, du Fonds de recherche du Québec — Nature et technologies, ainsi que de la Fondation de la famille Weston.

Charles-Antoine Darveau reçoit des financements du programme de subventions à la découverte du Conseil de recherches en sciences naturelles et en génie du Canada.

Nigel Raine reçoit des financements du Conseil de recherches en sciences naturelles et en génie du Canada, du projet Horizon Europe ProPollSoil, du Fonds d’innovation de la Fondation canadienne pour l’innovation, du ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Alimentation et de l’Agroentreprise de l’Ontario, de la Fédération canadienne de la faune et de la Fondation de la famille Weston.

ref. Comment les reines bourdons peuvent-elles survivre plusieurs jours sous l’eau ? – https://theconversation.com/comment-les-reines-bourdons-peuvent-elles-survivre-plusieurs-jours-sous-leau-280278

Israel and Lebanon have a ceasefire, but global attention shouldn’t move on. This isn’t a tidy end to the war

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Marika Sosnowski, Senior research fellow, The University of Melbourne

After weeks of bombardments in southern Lebanon that have killed more than 2,000 people and displaced more than one million residents, Israel has announced a ten-day ceasefire with Lebanon.

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, however, vowed to keep Israeli troops in southern Lebanon to create a ten-kilometre “security zone”, raising immediate questions about whether the ceasefire would actually stop Israeli attacks against Hezbollah.

After a previous ceasefire in late 2024 ended 13 months of fighting between Israel and Hezbollah, Israeli troops continued to launch airstrikes and carry out targeted killings of Hezbollah fighters.

People like to bound events such as wars with tidy dates and years. It makes them easier to understand and entertains the fantasy that historic events are neat, with understandable beginnings, middles and eventual ends.

But in reality, the messiness and complexities of war rarely hold to these manmade boundaries.

Instead, even after a ceasefire or a peace agreement is in place, many dynamics of war continue. This is the paradox of such agreements: they might end one phase of a conflict, but they inevitably usher in another.

The good and bad of ceasefires

Take Israel’s war in Gaza as an example.

The war came to an end after Israel and Hamas signed the Gaza Peace Plan, a 20-point deal brokered by the Trump administration, in October 2025.

The terms are relatively broad, vague and aspirational. But the deal has had many benefits. The ceasefire decreased Israel’s bombardments of Gaza. The remaining Israeli hostages captured on October 7 2023 were swapped with Palestinian prisoners held in Israeli jails. Somewhat more aid now enters the strip than during the war.

However, the agreement also created other negative dynamics and enabled many problems caused by the war to continue.

For example, after the deal was signed, the public and media attention shifted away from the violence continuing to be committed by Israel to other events. This has meant that in the wake of the peace deal, near-daily Israeli attacks have continued, but with much less scrutiny. Israeli-supported violence against Palestinians in the West Bank has also escalated.

Humanitarian aid entry into the Gaza Strip also remains vastly below the levels delineated by the peace agreement. And serious discussions about the future governance or development of Gaza – mandated under the peace plan in multiple points – remain uncertain amid the noise of other wars and global events.

We can see similar dynamics in Iran, barely a week after another vaguely worded ceasefire agreement was signed between the US and the Iranian regime.

It appears the regime has taken the opportunity provided by a two-week “peace” to crack down on internal dissent. And in what appears to be an attempt to enhance its negotiating position for future peace talks, the Trump administration has launched a naval blockade of Iranian ports.

The short-term truce between Lebanon and Israel might offer Lebanese civilians some level of reprieve. However, it may also provide Israel with a quiet week away from the media spotlight to reinforce its military occupation of southern Lebanon.

To create Israel’s security zone, Defence Minister Israel Katz said the military would demolish buildings in Lebanese towns near the border and prevent displaced Lebanese from returning to their homes. Netanyahu made clear Israeli troops would remain.

This can all be more easily accomplished with a ceasefire deal in place.

Short attention spans

Globally, dozens of countries are currently experiencing armed conflict. Many people scan the news regularly as a way of keeping informed and bearing witness to the dynamics of these wars, casualty figures and how they might potentially end.

This glorified horror plays into our current “headline culture”, which tends to encourage clickbait, sensationalised content and virality. It also means public attention on a particular conflict is not necessarily driven by the scale of suffering, but by media coverage. Because of digital media, we have now a proximate and persistent view of human suffering and death that does not always translate into ongoing attention and action.

Whether parties to a conflict will reach a ceasefire or peace agreement is certainly worthwhile and important news. However, once a deal is signed, media and public attention often shifts to other more “active” (and also worthy) conflicts. There is currently no shortage of wars to choose from.

Because we believe a conflict has “ended” with a deal, what comes after the ceasefire or peace agreement tends to remain obfuscated or under-reported.

The peace agreement paradox

Ceasefires and peace agreements are certainly not always a harbinger of peace or a neat full-stop to a war story.

Arguably, the parties to these deals are increasingly aware of the “peace” agreement paradox and are making their political and military calculations accordingly.

If we truly want to grapple with what war and peace directly entails for millions of people in an increasingly complex and volatile world, we need to broaden our understanding about what we mean by ceasefires and peace agreements – and keep up a level of scrutiny long after the deals are signed.

The Conversation

Marika Sosnowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Israel and Lebanon have a ceasefire, but global attention shouldn’t move on. This isn’t a tidy end to the war – https://theconversation.com/israel-and-lebanon-have-a-ceasefire-but-global-attention-shouldnt-move-on-this-isnt-a-tidy-end-to-the-war-280816

Israel and Lebanon have signed a ceasefire. But this isn’t a tidy end to a war and attention moves on quickly

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Marika Sosnowski, Senior research fellow, The University of Melbourne

After weeks of bombardments in southern Lebanon that have killed more than 2,000 people and displaced more than one million residents, Israel has announced a ten-day ceasefire with Lebanon.

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, however, vowed to keep Israeli troops in southern Lebanon to create a ten-kilometre “security zone”, raising immediate questions about whether the ceasefire would actually stop Israeli attacks against Hezbollah.

After a previous ceasefire in late 2024 ended 13 months of fighting between Israel and Hezbollah, Israeli troops continued to launch airstrikes and carry out targeted killings of Hezbollah fighters.

People like to bound events such as wars with tidy dates and years. It makes them easier to understand and entertains the fantasy that historic events are neat, with understandable beginnings, middles and eventual ends.

But in reality, the messiness and complexities of war rarely hold to these manmade boundaries.

Instead, even after a ceasefire or a peace agreement is in place, many dynamics of war continue. This is the paradox of such agreements: they might end one phase of a conflict, but they inevitably usher in another.

The good and bad of ceasefires

Take Israel’s war in Gaza as an example.

The war came to an end after Israel and Hamas signed the Gaza Peace Plan, a 20-point deal brokered by the Trump administration, in October 2025.

The terms are relatively broad, vague and aspirational. But the deal has had many benefits. The ceasefire decreased Israel’s bombardments of Gaza. The remaining Israeli hostages captured on October 7 2023 were swapped with Palestinian prisoners held in Israeli jails. Somewhat more aid now enters the strip than during the war.

However, the agreement also created other negative dynamics and enabled many problems caused by the war to continue.

For example, after the deal was signed, the public and media attention shifted away from the violence continuing to be committed by Israel to other events. This has meant that in the wake of the peace deal, near-daily Israeli attacks have continued, but with much less scrutiny. Israeli-supported violence against Palestinians in the West Bank has also escalated.

Humanitarian aid entry into the Gaza Strip also remains vastly below the levels delineated by the peace agreement. And serious discussions about the future governance or development of Gaza – mandated under the peace plan in multiple points – remain uncertain amid the noise of other wars and global events.

We can see similar dynamics in Iran, barely a week after another vaguely worded ceasefire agreement was signed between the US and the Iranian regime.

It appears the regime has taken the opportunity provided by a two-week “peace” to crack down on internal dissent. And in what appears to be an attempt to enhance its negotiating position for future peace talks, the Trump administration has launched a naval blockade of Iranian ports.

The short-term truce between Lebanon and Israel might offer Lebanese civilians some level of reprieve. However, it may also provide Israel with a quiet week away from the media spotlight to reinforce its military occupation of southern Lebanon.

To create Israel’s security zone, Defence Minister Israel Katz said the military would demolish buildings in Lebanese towns near the border and prevent displaced Lebanese from returning to their homes. Netanyahu made clear Israeli troops would remain.

This can all be more easily accomplished with a ceasefire deal in place.

Short attention spans

Globally, dozens of countries are currently experiencing armed conflict. Many people scan the news regularly as a way of keeping informed and bearing witness to the dynamics of these wars, casualty figures and how they might potentially end.

This glorified horror plays into our current “headline culture”, which tends to encourage clickbait, sensationalised content and virality. It also means public attention on a particular conflict is not necessarily driven by the scale of suffering, but by media coverage. Because of digital media, we have now a proximate and persistent view of human suffering and death that does not always translate into ongoing attention and action.

Whether parties to a conflict will reach a ceasefire or peace agreement is certainly worthwhile and important news. However, once a deal is signed, media and public attention often shifts to other more “active” (and also worthy) conflicts. There is currently no shortage of wars to choose from.

Because we believe a conflict has “ended” with a deal, what comes after the ceasefire or peace agreement tends to remain obfuscated or under-reported.

The peace agreement paradox

Ceasefires and peace agreements are certainly not always a harbinger of peace or a neat full-stop to a war story.

Arguably, the parties to these deals are increasingly aware of the “peace” agreement paradox and are making their political and military calculations accordingly.

If we truly want to grapple with what war and peace directly entails for millions of people in an increasingly complex and volatile world, we need to broaden our understanding about what we mean by ceasefires and peace agreements – and keep up a level of scrutiny long after the deals are signed.

The Conversation

Marika Sosnowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Israel and Lebanon have signed a ceasefire. But this isn’t a tidy end to a war and attention moves on quickly – https://theconversation.com/israel-and-lebanon-have-signed-a-ceasefire-but-this-isnt-a-tidy-end-to-a-war-and-attention-moves-on-quickly-280816

Pope Leo’s resolute response to Trump attack reveals a man of God, not politics

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Darius von Guttner Sporzynski, Professor of History, Australian Catholic University

When Pope Leo XIV condemned threats to destroy Iranian civilisation as “truly unacceptable” in April 2026, the backlash was immediate. US President Donald Trump unleashed a tirade against the pope on social media, accusing him of being “weak on crime”, “terrible for foreign policy”, and acting like a politician rather than a religious leader.

But the exchange that followed matters more than the accusation. Confronted with criticism from Trump, Leo did not retreat. He made his position explicit: he was not afraid to speak, because his task was to proclaim the gospel.

Leo said he had “no fear of the Trump administration”, and “I don’t think that the message of the Gospel is meant to be abused in the way that some people are doing”.

That response clarifies the logic of his pontificate. Leo XIV is not trying to enter politics. He is defining the limits within which politics can operate.

Trump’s attack was heightened when he posted an AI-generated image of himself as Jesus, which caused an outcry even among his supporters. He has since deleted the post.

God, not politics

Pope Leo’s opposition to the Iran war is not political in origin. It is moral and theological. It rests on a consistent claim: power must be judged, violence must be restrained, and invoking God to justify destruction is a distortion of both religion and public life.

From the beginning of his pontificate, Leo XIV has made this clear. Elected on May 8 2025, he used his first public address to call for dialogue, unity, and what he described as an “unarmed and disarming peace”. This was not positioning. It was a statement of purpose.

Since then, his interventions have followed a clear pattern. In 2025, as conflicts intensified in Ukraine, Gaza, and Sudan, he called repeatedly for ceasefires, humanitarian protection, and renewed diplomacy. He avoided strategic language. Instead, he focused on human dignity and the moral cost of war.

The pattern continued into 2026. On March 8, as the Iran conflict escalated, he called for an end to bombing and urged that “weapons may fall silent” to allow dialogue. On April 11, at a prayer vigil in St Peter’s Basilica, he sharpened his language. He warned of a “delusion of omnipotence” driving war and declared: “Enough of war”.

These are not policy prescriptions. They do not tell governments how to conduct war. They ask whether such wars can be justified at all.

This distinction lies at the centre of the current dispute. Political leaders operate within frameworks of interest, security, and power. Leo XIV operates within a framework of moral judgement. When those frameworks collide, his interventions are labelled political.

Yet his response to Trump shows he does not accept that framing. He has insisted his role is not to compete with political authority, but to speak from the gospel, even when that provokes criticism.

This is not new, but it is unusually explicit. Leo is drawing a line between two forms of authority: one grounded in power, the other in moral responsibility. He does not claim to direct political outcomes. He claims the right, and the duty, to judge them.

Beyond war

The same logic shapes his interventions beyond war. On migration, he has framed the issue in terms of human dignity, questioning whether harsh treatment of migrants can be reconciled with a consistent ethic of life. On social questions, he has resisted partisan categories, insisting moral coherence matters more than political alignment.

His engagement with artificial intelligence follows the same pattern. In December 2025, he warned that technological development must serve the common good, not concentrate power in the hands of a few. The question, again, was not technical but ethical: what does it mean to respect human dignity in a changing world?

Across these issues, the method is consistent. Leo XIV begins with principles, not interests. He does not align with factions. He applies moral reasoning to contemporary problems, even when doing so invites political backlash.

This approach reflects his formation. Born in Chicago in 1955 and shaped by decades of pastoral work in Peru, he encountered the realities of violence, inequality, and political instability firsthand. Those experiences did not draw him into politics. They reinforced a conviction that power must be accountable to moral limits.

His intellectual work supports this view. In his 1987 doctoral thesis, he argued authority is not domination but service, grounded in a moral order rather than human will. That understanding carries into his papacy. When Leo XIV speaks, he does not seek to exercise power. He seeks to define its boundaries.

This is why his interventions provoke strong reactions. They do not remain abstract. They challenge real decisions, real policies, and real uses of force. They question the assumptions that underpin them.

In a political culture that often treats moral claims as secondary, this is disruptive. It exposes a tension that cannot easily be resolved: whether decisions about war, migration, or technology can be separated from questions of right and wrong.

Leo XIV’s answer is clear. They cannot.

His exchange with Trump brings that tension into focus. Trump’s criticism reflects a familiar expectation: that religious leaders should avoid direct engagement with political decisions. His response rejects that expectation. He does not present himself as a political actor. He presents himself as a moral voice that cannot be silent.

There is also a longer perspective at work. Political leaders operate within electoral cycles. Their decisions are shaped by immediate pressures. The papacy operates across generations. Its interventions are rarely decisive in the moment, but they shape how events are judged over time.

Leo XIV’s stance on the Iran war belongs to that longer horizon. It is not an attempt to determine outcomes. It is an attempt to set limits: on power, on violence, and on the use of religious language to justify either.

The Conversation

Darius von Guttner Sporzynski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Pope Leo’s resolute response to Trump attack reveals a man of God, not politics – https://theconversation.com/pope-leos-resolute-response-to-trump-attack-reveals-a-man-of-god-not-politics-280469

Cannabis sales and use are high in Michigan – but federal law means research lags behind

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Omayma Alshaarawy, Associate Professor of Family Medicine, Michigan State University

Cannabis users have a variety of products to choose from Arturo Barajas/The Conversation, CC BY-ND

Have you been to a licensed cannabis dispensary lately?

My team and I often visit them in the Greater Lansing area to invite cannabis users to participate in our studies. As soon as we walk in, we are met with a dazzling array of products: high-potency vape cartridges, gourmet gummies, premium marijuana flowers and more.

This broad array of choice is common in Michigan, a state where per capita sales now rank among the nation’s highest. I confess I look at those shelves with some professional frustration. As a Michigan State University researcher who has spent nearly two decades studying cannabis use and human health, I face severe restrictions under federal law that mean I cannot study the products that so many of my neighbors are buying.

Under federal law, cannabis is a Schedule I drug. According to this designation, cannabis has “a high potential for abuse” and “no currently accepted medical use,” even though millions of Americans consume it every day. Other Schedule I drugs include heroin and LSD.

In my view, a proposal to reclassify cannabis from Schedule I to Schedule III represents a significant, though incomplete, step forward. The change was introduced during the Biden administration and supported by an executive order signed by President Donald Trump in late 2025, but it seems stalled in a regulatory morass.

For researchers like me, whose work is rooted in understanding how this widely available substance affects the health of Michiganders, the change opens some doors while leaving other critical barriers intact.

1 in 6 pregnant Michiganders use cannabis

Michigan’s robust legal market has recently seen a wave of dispensary closures due to oversaturation and falling prices. However, access is still widespread.

Cannabis is widely consumed in Michigan’s diverse communities, from Detroit to the Upper Peninsula. Data that my colleagues and I have collected confirm that use is not only high overall but notably prevalent among specific populations, including older adults and pregnant women.

As more women of reproductive age use cannabis, it becomes more important to research how prenatal exposure affects the health of mothers and babies. This will allow researchers to provide clear information to families across Michigan who are making decisions in a landscape where cannabis is legally accessible and socially normalized.

However, federal law limits researchers to cannabis samples provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, which often bears little resemblance to the products Michiganders are actually using. The institute supplies low-potency, standardized products, while the commercial market is flooded with high-potency concentrates, edibles and vapes. This limits the real-world applicability of our findings.

Heart disease, diabetes, cancer, nausea

Much of my research focuses on cannabis use by people with chronic disease. Michigan legalized the recreational use of cannabis in 2018 by popular referendum, and use is highly prevalent among middle-aged and older adults.

Chocolate bars and packages are on display
For those with a sweet tooth, Pure Options offers cannabis-infused chocolates, peanut butter cups and fudge.
Arturo Barajas/The Conversation, CC BY-ND

At the same time, Michigan grapples with a high burden of chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes and cancer. The risk of these conditions increases with age. In southeast Michigan, this burden is even more acute. A Forbes analysis ranked Detroit as the least healthy city in the nation, with the highest rates of diabetes, high blood pressure and obesity. These conditions disproportionately affect Black residents, who make up nearly 80% of the city’s population.

A significant portion of my research seeks to clarify the effects of cannabis use on heart health. This work is particularly urgent in Michigan, where the rates of heart disease are persistently high. Moving cannabis to Schedule III would facilitate larger, more rigorous longitudinal studies, like my team’s Cannabis Legalization in Michigan, or CALM, cohort. For instance, if a Michigander has high blood pressure and uses high-THC vape products, we want to know how that affects their heart health compared to using other forms of the drug. We cannot design a rigorous study answering this question because we are barred from using the specific products consumers purchase in dispensaries.

My research team and others are also investigating cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, a condition characterized by cycles of severe nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain that can result from chronic cannabis use. As regular cannabis use grows among Michiganders, understanding who is at risk and how to treat this debilitating syndrome has become a critical clinical priority.

Hurdles will remain

Even when rescheduling happens, significant barriers to cannabis research will remain.

Schedule III was designed for prescription pharmaceuticals, such as steroids and testosterone, not for a substance available at a store down the street. Moving cannabis to Schedule III does not resolve the fundamental conflict between federal drug policy and real-world consumption in Michigan and around the U.S.

The mismatch between federal law and the patchwork of state cannabis policies will also mean that federally funded, multisite studies remain limited to states where cannabis is fully legal, narrowing the geographical scope and diversity of our research. It also does not eliminate the unique administrative burdens that apply only to cannabis research. Those burdens add years and drive up the cost of studies that are urgently needed. For example, researchers often face lengthy federal review delays before a study can begin.

Researchers could do more useful studies using the products that consumers buy in their own neighborhoods. This would be made possible by removing lengthy federal review requirements, a change that would require congressional action.

The Medical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research Expansion Act of 2022 was a step in this direction. It aimed to streamline the application process for researchers and expand the supply of research-grade cannabis. However, it did not eliminate the fundamental Schedule I classification or the redundant federal reviews that continue to delay research.

For the people of Michigan, where cannabis is easy to buy and chronic disease is common, these policy restrictions leave families without the science they need to make informed decisions.

The Conversation

Omayma Alshaarawy receives funding from the US National Institute of Health and the Michigan Health Endowment Fund.

ref. Cannabis sales and use are high in Michigan – but federal law means research lags behind – https://theconversation.com/cannabis-sales-and-use-are-high-in-michigan-but-federal-law-means-research-lags-behind-276731

How nanomedicine gets inside your cells and treats you from the inside out

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Suiyang Liao, Postdoctoral researcher in Nanomedicine, University of British Columbia

Canadians swallow millions of pills every day to treat common health issues like high blood pressure, high cholesterol and Type II diabetes, but scientists are working at the molecular level to turn patients’ cells into pharmacies.

Nanotechnology, where atoms and molecules are manipulated on a tiny scale — a billion times smaller than a metre — is already incorporated into everyday products like sunscreen, waterproof clothing and smartphones.

In nanomedicine, it’s being used to prompt RNA to make protein-based drugs to treat diseases. Now we can fine-tune protein production by dialling it up or down, creating personalized medicine on an invisible scale.

Protein production and health

The human body is a precision instrument, and its smooth operation relies on the balance of proteins like keratin, which creates structure for your hair and nails, and collagen, which gives your skin its strength and elasticity.

Factor VIII is a clotting protein that acts like molecular glue at wound sites, and if your body doesn’t make enough of it — like people with Hemophilia A — a seemingly small injury can cause dangerous bleeding. Conversely, if you make too much of apolipoprotein C3 (ApoC3), it blocks the breakdown of fats in the blood called triglycerides, and these high lipid levels increase the risk of pancreatitis, heart disease and stroke.

The body maintains this delicate protein balance through an elegant molecular system, one that nanomedicine is now learning to control.


Immunity and Society is a new series from The Conversation Canada that presents new vaccine discoveries and immune-based innovations that are changing how we understand and protect human health. Through a partnership with the Bridge Research Consortium, these articles — written by experts in Canada at the forefront of immunology, biomanufacturing, social science and humanities — explore the latest developments and their impacts.


RNA’s balancing act

How does your body make proteins? Think of your cells as factories, with DNA as the operating manual.

In order to make the proteins it needs, your body’s cells act as factories, with DNA as the operating manual. The blueprints are safely locked away in the nucleus, and cells can’t make anything directly from the precious original.

Instead, when the cell needs a specific protein, it makes a temporary copy of the blueprint, called messenger RNA (mRNA). This single strand of nucleic acids carries the instructions to the cytoplasm, or the factory floor. There, molecular machines called ribosomes read the instructions and build amino acids into a protein.

This is the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA → protein.

When the body needs proteins, it makes mRNA copies and transfers them to the cytoplasm. The factory foreman is a mechanism called RNA interference, which ensures proteins are not over-produced or under-produced.

For example, small interfering RNA (siRNA) or Antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) molecules can stop the production of proteins by silencing genetic instructions from DNA and cutting target mRNA apart. In both cases, the mRNA degrades and protein production stops, like hitting the emergency button on a conveyor belt.

Turning RNA into drugs

What does this mean for future disease treatment? Unlike small-molecule drugs such as antibiotics or protein-based drugs like insulin, RNA drugs work upstream, at the instruction level itself.

As scientists in nanomedicine, we harness cellular machinery to treat diseases with RNA drugs by dialing up or dialing down protein production. Want more of a beneficial protein? Deliver more mRNA. Want less of a harmful one? Use siRNA or ASO to silence the gene.

Teaching cells to make what’s missing

When the human body lacks an essential protein, disease follows. In hemophilia A, the problem lies in the blueprint. A mutation in the DNA means the gene for factor VIII contains errors, like a typo in a recipe that calls for salt instead of sugar. The cell follows this flawed instruction, and makes messenger RNA that produces either a broken protein or none at all.

Without functional factor VIII, a simple nosebleed can last for hours, not minutes and a little bump can lead to a big bruise that takes a long time to heal. Even a minor cut can lead to prolonged bleeding.

Scientists can now synthesize mRNA in the lab — for example, by making a correct, error-free copy of the instructions for factor VIII — and package it in lipid nanoparticles, which are little protective bubbles of fat.

As a materials scientist at UBC working with researchers Anna Blakney and Pieter Cullis, I design formulations of lipid nanoparticles. When these particles are infused intravenously, they deliver the synthetic mRNA to liver cells, which then read the instructions and manufacture fresh factor VIII protein. The cell becomes its own pharmacy.

Silencing the trouble-makers

Over-expression of some proteins can also cause disease, for example, in familial chylomicronemia syndrome where the messenger RNA makes too much apolipoprotein C3.

ApoC3 helps regulate fat metabolism, but too much of it blocks the body’s ability to clear triglycerides from the bloodstream. The instructions from the DNA manual may be correct, but small interfering RNA molecules are not doing their job to keep production in check. Like an out-of-control assembly line, fat accumulates in the blood. If it reaches dangerous levels it can cause acute pancreatitis — a painful and potentially fatal inflammation of the pancreas.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration and Health Canada recently approved Plozasiran, an injectable drug that treats familial chylomicronemia syndrome by delivering small interfering RNA to liver cells.

This siRNA molecule is a short double strand of nucleic acids to be unzipped as two single strands, one of which complements ApoC3 mRNA, like a key fitting a lock. The binding event will be recognized by the cellular machinery to cut the mRNA apart. No mRNA means no protein production.

The same technology offers different levers: mRNA amplifies production of beneficial proteins like factor VIII; siRNA silences production of harmful proteins like ApoC3. Together, they represent medicine’s new ability to program biology, turning genes up or down as precisely as adjusting the volume on a stereo.

The Conversation

Suiyang Liao is affiliated with the University of British Columbia.

ref. How nanomedicine gets inside your cells and treats you from the inside out – https://theconversation.com/how-nanomedicine-gets-inside-your-cells-and-treats-you-from-the-inside-out-270414

What Ontarians need to know about ‘student achievement’ reforms that will run school boards like businesses

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Sachin Maharaj, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Policy and Program Evaluation, Faculty of Education, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

The Ontario government has introduced legislation that will make its school boards run more like businesses. The recently announced Putting Student Achievement First Act reduces the power of elected trustees and creates a powerful new chief executive officer (CEO) position to head school boards.

Unlike previous directors of education who were required to have education backgrounds and shared power with elected boards, CEOs will be required to have business qualifications and will have ultimate authority over decision-making.

CEOs will lead the preparation of school board budgets with elected trustees relegated to an advisory role. Instead of elected trustees representing the public at the bargaining table, CEOs will negotiate and ratify collective agreements at both the local and provincial level.

The goal of all of these reforms is to bring a more business-like focus to schools. The CEO is expected to focus on “effective resource allocation” and “corporate services oversight.”

Over the past five years, we have been studying the challenges to implementing equity reforms in Ontario school districts.

Decades of educational research, including our own, confirms that attempts to force efficiency into schools serve to sacrifice student equity and the material needs of the most vulnerable for short-term cost savings.

‘Chief education officer’ under CEO

School boards will be required to have a chief education officer position, with required teaching qualifications. This role will focus on academic programming.

However, this “CEdO” will be hired by and be subservient to the CEO. What this means is that the traditional educational mission of schools is now going to take a backseat to financial considerations.




Read more:
Attacks on school boards threaten local democracy


For a preview of how this will impact students, we only need to look at the changes that have been made at the eight school boards that have been placed under provincial supervision.

Lowest per-pupil funding in 10 years

These boards were repeatedly accused by the minister of education of financial mismanagement.

While there were instances of questionable expenses, subsequent reporting found that two-thirds of Ontario school boards were either running budget deficits or close to it. This suggests the problem was really chronic underfunding.

According to the Financial Accountability Office of Ontario: “In 2024-25, real per-student provincial operating funding to school boards was $14,504, the lowest level over the last 10 years.” But instead of addressing this underfunding, the province installed supervisors that have been making cuts to staff.

Reductions, layoffs

In the Thames Valley District School Board, there have been staff reductions in its equity and human rights office.

The Peel District School Board is looking at possibly laying off hundreds of teachers.

In the Toronto District School Board, class sizes have increased and summer school programming has been cut by more than half.

The board will no longer provide additional staff for its highest-needs schools, and it will cut almost 300 teachers and 40 vice-principals next year.

LBGTQ+, racialized, Indigenous students

The province is also ending the requirements for boards to conduct school climate surveys, which examine the degree to which students from different backgrounds feel welcome and accepted or experience bullying and discrimination in schools.

As a result, many Ontario schools will no longer even know how their racialized and/or LGBTQ+ students are being treated.

Also concerning is its approach to increasing school attendance by making it part of students’ final grades.

The reality is that the causes of school absenteeism are complex. Taking a punitive approach may end up further marginalizing Indigenous and racialized students.




Read more:
Racism contributes to poor attendance of Indigenous students in Alberta schools: New study


Risk of exacerbating disparities

Taken together, it’s clear that, while all students and families will be impacted, those who are already disadvantaged will bear the brunt of the cuts and provincial reforms.

This will only exacerbate disparities in schools on the basis of race, social class, gender and sexuality, and disability that exist in our education system. This is especially true of Black students, whose continued marginalization was documented last year by the Ontario Human Rights Commission.




Read more:
‘Dreams delayed’ no longer: Report identifies key changes needed around Black students’ education


As put in a recent letter to Premier Doug Ford by the Black Trustees’ Caucus: “Ontario cannot address systemic anti-Black racism while weakening the governance and equity structures designed to confront it.”

Advocating for vulnerable students

In part of our study, already presented at academic conferences and now under peer review for publication, we interviewed around 100 people working in several different school boards across Ontario. Participants included trustees, directors of education, associate directors, superintendents, people working in equity departments, school principals and teachers.

What we heard is that in districts across the province, school board staff and trustees have consistently reported struggling to advocate for vulnerable students in the face of a provincial government that appears determined to undermine such efforts.

This includes public comments like Ford repeatedly accusing school boards of indoctrinating students.

Interviewees noted that over recent years, as the province has asserted greater control over school boards, senior school board staff have received ministry guidance to focus more on literacy and numeracy and less on equity and social justice initiatives.

As a result, educators engaged in equity work reported feeling like they were constantly under surveillance and that any real efforts made to help vulnerable students — including racialized and LGBTQ+ students — would put their careers at risk.

Improving outcomes: A better approach

Educators understand that best practices for improving outcomes for all students depend on strong connections between schools, families and communities; a focus on overall well-being (physical, social-emotional and mental); decision-making that reflects the larger contexts in which schools are situated and individual circumstances; and giving educators the respect, autonomy and resources they need to strengthen their teaching.

The Putting Student Achievement First Act promotes the opposite approach — another reason why those with classroom expertise, not CEOs, should be making the key decisions about schools.

An education system that is run like a business ultimately views students with the highest needs as a liability to cut rather than a collective moral responsibility.

It erodes the accountability of leadership under a democratic system, leadership that is responsible to communities it serves. It also erodes the autonomy of teachers who require professional respect and the ability to access resources to serve the specific needs of their students.

Some ‘too expensive’ to serve?

When public school is treated like a commodity to be optimized rather than a fundamental right, it’s a betrayal of the values of a system that should instead centre students and their learning.

Although there were significant challenges with school governance under the previous model, the solution is not to diminish local democratic control, but to strengthen it.

Once we view education through the lens of a balance sheet, we have already decided that some students are too expensive to serve.

The Conversation

Sachin Maharaj receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Beyhan Farhadi receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Vidya Shah consults in school boards. She receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

ref. What Ontarians need to know about ‘student achievement’ reforms that will run school boards like businesses – https://theconversation.com/what-ontarians-need-to-know-about-student-achievement-reforms-that-will-run-school-boards-like-businesses-280618