Le commerce et la démocratie restent les principaux remparts contre les guerres inter-étatiques

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Dominic Rohner, Professor of Economics and André Hoffman Chair in Political Economics and Governance, Geneva Graduate Institute, Graduate Institute – Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement (IHEID)

L’escalade des guerres commerciales et l’obsession croissante pour le contrôle des territoires stratégiques sont les deux faces d’une même médaille. Des recherches universitaires récentes révèlent un lien évident entre ces tendances et soulignent la combinaison de politiques qui garantit le mieux la sécurité nationale. Les conclusions sont frappantes et leurs implications pour la trajectoire actuelle du monde sont profondément préoccupantes.


De nos jours, on se souvient d’une époque plus sombre où les grandes puissances n’hésitaient pas à intensifier les tensions militaires pour prendre le contrôle de territoires stratégiquement importants. Pensons à la ruée vers l’Afrique à la fin du XIXe siècle ou à la série de conflits par procuration pendant la guerre froide, et à l’ampleur inimaginable des souffrances humaines qu’ils ont entraînées.

Considérons maintenant la rivalité croissante entre la Chine et les États-Unis au sujet du canal de Panama ou le regain d’intérêt géopolitique pour le Groenland. Un discours courant suggère que le contrôle d’un territoire stratégique renforce la sécurité nationale. Si cet argument est facile à comprendre, il présente toutefois un défaut fondamental : il est tout simplement faux.

Le commerce international, un rempart contre les guerres

Des recherches scientifiques montrent que, historiquement, les principaux points d’étranglement du transport maritime international, tels que le détroit de Gibraltar, le canal de Suez, le canal de Panama et le golfe d’Aden, sont devenus des zones de conflit armé principalement lorsque le commerce mondial était faible.

À l’inverse, pendant les périodes de forte mondialisation, ces passages vitaux avaient tendance à être plus stables et plus sûrs que la plupart des autres endroits. La raison est simple : lorsque le commerce est en plein essor, les enjeux sont suffisamment importants et les grandes puissances ont des intérêts en jeu ; elles veillent donc à ce que les routes maritimes restent sûres et accessibles. Le coût d’opportunité imminent d’une perturbation du commerce les oblige à protéger ces artères commerciales vitales.

En d’autres termes, si certains pays peuvent estimer accroître leur sécurité en étendant leur contrôle territorial, l’impact global de tels agissements sur le système international est profondément néfaste. Cela met en évidence une vérité fondamentale sur la guerre et la paix : si la prise de contrôle militaire de zones riches en ressources ou stratégiquement importantes peut offrir un sentiment de sécurité éphémère, la stratégie la plus sûre consiste à promouvoir le commerce international. Des liens économiques solides créent une interdépendance entre des rivaux potentiels, rendant les conflits beaucoup plus coûteux et renforçant les incitations à la paix, un effet confirmé par des études statistiques de pointe.

L’autre face de la même médaille dans les relations internationales est le rôle de la démocratie. Comme le soulignent des travaux universitaires récents, la démocratie n’est pas seulement une garantie contre les guerres civiles ; elle réduit également de manière significative le risque de guerres entre États. Une tendance frappante dans les données, connue sous le nom de « paix démocratique », a même été décrite comme la chose la plus proche d’une « loi » en sciences sociales : les démocraties entrent rarement, voire jamais, en guerre les unes contre les autres, alors que les guerres à grande échelle sont beaucoup plus fréquentes entre deux États autocratiques ou entre une démocratie et une autocratie.

La paix démocratique

La logique derrière cela est simple. Si les autocrates et les élites au pouvoir peuvent tirer un bénéfice personnel de la guerre, la population en général subit des pertes immenses. Des estimations récentes montrent que les guerres entraînent non seulement des milliers de morts, mais aussi, en moyenne, une baisse d’environ 20 % du PIB des pays concernés, la reprise économique étant extrêmement lente.

Conscients de ces conséquences, les citoyens, lorsqu’ils ont la possibilité de s’exprimer, sont généralement réticents à soutenir une agression sans justification convaincante. Et lorsque les deux pays impliqués dans un conflit potentiel sont gouvernés par des électorats peu enclins à prendre des risques, les chances que les différends dégénèrent en guerre deviennent extrêmement faibles.

Sans surprise, l’efficacité de la paix démocratique est particulièrement notable lorsque les gouvernements démocratiques ne sont pas proches de la fin de leur mandat, car les incitations à la réélection maintiennent les actions des gouvernements démocratiques en phase avec les préférences de l’électorat.

Les principes démocratiques, tels que l’État de droit, les freins et contrepoids contre les abus de pouvoir, et la protection des droits politiques favorisent également la paix lorsqu’ils s’appliquent aux relations entre les nations, et pas seulement entre les individus. Une analyse à long terme des conflits internationaux révèle une tendance frappante. Si la Seconde Guerre mondiale et les guerres de décolonisation ont été caractérisées par des affrontements interétatiques extrêmement violents, depuis un demi-siècle les guerres de très haute intensité entre États ont été relativement rares (même si, malheureusement, les guerres civiles se sont multipliées).

Cette ère de paix entre les États a coïncidé avec l’apogée de l’ordre international fondé sur des règles, dans lequel les normes mondiales, telles que l’inviolabilité des frontières souveraines et le droit à l’autodétermination nationale, ont été largement considérées comme sacro-saintes.

Bien sûr, les grandes puissances ont parfois violé ces normes et cherché à influencer les petites nations par des moyens indirects et le revers de la médaille de la raréfaction des guerres interétatiques directes fut un nombre plus élevé de conflits civils par procuration comme au Vietnam ou en Corée.

Cependant, comme l’annexion pure et simple et l’absorption d’États plus faibles ont été largement condamnées, les incitations à déclencher des guerres ont été considérablement réduites. En conséquence, l’âge d’or du multilatéralisme a considérablement diminué l’attrait de la guerre.

Une approche plus transactionnelle de la diplomatie, dans laquelle les grandes puissances utilisent leur influence pour conclure des « accords » ponctuels avec des constellations changeantes d’alliés et d’adversaires, peut apporter des gains à court terme, mais elle crée des vulnérabilités à long terme.

L’histoire nous en offre un exemple éloquent. À la fin du XIXe siècle, l’habileté d’Otto von Bismarck à nouer des alliances a permis à l’Allemagne de rester à l’écart des grands conflits. Cependant, après son renvoi, le leadership impulsif et erratique de l’empereur Guillaume II a conduit l’Allemagne à s’aliéner rapidement ses principaux alliés, laissant le pays de plus en plus isolé et exposé au début du XXe siècle. Cette dissolution des alliances a été un facteur crucial dans la chaîne d’événements qui a conduit à la Première Guerre mondiale.

Si l’histoire peut nous servir de guide, s’emparer de territoires stratégiquement importants et abandonner des alliés de longue date pour des avantages éphémères ne garantit ni la paix ni la prospérité. Une stratégie bien plus sage consiste à investir dans le multilatéralisme, à renforcer les relations commerciales et à défendre un ordre international fondé sur des règles.

The Conversation

Dominic Rohner ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Le commerce et la démocratie restent les principaux remparts contre les guerres inter-étatiques – https://theconversation.com/le-commerce-et-la-democratie-restent-les-principaux-remparts-contre-les-guerres-inter-etatiques-262246

Israël peut-il invoquer la légitime défense pour justifier sa frappe au Qatar ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Shannon Bosch, Associate Professor (Law), Edith Cowan University

Un État est autorisé par le droit international à frapper des adversaires situés sur le territoire d’un autre État, mais seulement à des conditions précises, qui ne semblent pas réunies dans le cas de la frappe israélienne visant des responsables du Hamas à Doha.


Israël a effectué mardi une frappe aérienne visant des dirigeants du Hamas à Doha, la capitale du Qatar. Six personnes auraient été tuées, dont le fils d’un haut responsable du Hamas.

Les condamnations internationales n’ont pas tardé. Le gouvernement qatari a qualifié la frappe de « violation flagrante des règles et principes du droit international », un sentiment partagé par de très nombreux leaders du monde entier – de Recep Tayyip Erdogan à Emmanuel Macron en passant par Keir Starmer et le secrétaire général de l’ONU Antonio Guterres, qui a estimé qu’Israël s’était rendu coupable d’une violation flagrante de la souveraineté et de l’intégrité territoriale du Qatar.




À lire aussi :
La contestation croissante de l’accord entre l’UE et Israël ira-t-elle jusqu’à sa suspension ?


Même Donald Trump, le plus fervent allié d’Israël, a pris ses distances par rapport à cette attaque :

« Bombarder unilatéralement le Qatar, une nation souveraine et un proche allié des États-Unis, qui travaille très dur et prend courageusement des risques avec nous pour négocier la paix, ne sert ni les intérêts d’Israël, ni ceux des États-Unis. »

De son côté, le premier ministre israélien Benyamin Nétanyahou a justifié cette frappe en affirmant qu’elle avait visé des dirigeants politiques du Hamas en représailles à deux attaques commises par le groupe islamiste : une fusillade à Jérusalem le 8 septembre qui a fait six morts et un assaut contre un camp militaire à Gaza le même jour qui a coûté la vie à quatre soldats.

Il a déclaré :

« Le Hamas a fièrement revendiqué ces deux actions. […] Ce sont les mêmes chefs terroristes qui ont planifié, lancé et célébré les horribles massacres du 7 octobre. »

Déclaration de Benyamin Nétanyahou sur la frappe israélienne à Doha.

Mais qu’en dit le droit international ? L’attaque d’Israël contre le Hamas sur le territoire d’un autre pays était-elle légale ?

Le texte international de référence

L’article 2(4) de la Charte des Nations unies interdit le recours à la force contre « l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politique » d’un autre État.

Tout recours à la force nécessite soit l’autorisation du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies, soit une justification selon laquelle la force est utilisée strictement à des fins d’autodéfense et conformément à l’article 51 de la Charte des Nations unies.

Cela implique-t-il donc qu’Israël pourrait invoquer la légitime défense contre les dirigeants du Hamas se trouvant au Qatar si le mouvement islamiste avait effectivement ordonné les deux attaques contre ses citoyens à Jérusalem et à Gaza ?

Il n’est pas si facile de répondre à cette question.

Comment définir la légitime défense face à des groupes tels que le Hamas ?

La Cour internationale de justice (CIJ) a à plusieurs reprises souligné l’importance primordiale de la souveraineté territoriale en droit international.

À ce titre, elle a limité le recours à la légitime défense aux réponses à des attaques armées pouvant être attribuées à un État, et non pas simplement à des acteurs non étatiques opérant à partir du territoire de cet État.

Après les attentats du 11 septembre 2001, les États-Unis et d’autres pays ont affirmé qu’ils pouvaient recourir à la force en légitime défense contre des acteurs non étatiques (tels que des groupes terroristes) ayant trouvé refuge et opérant à partir du territoire d’un autre État, même si cet État n’était pas directement impliqué dans l’organisation et la mise en œuvre des attentats.

En réponse à ces développements, Sir Daniel Bethlehem, expert en droit international et conseiller en politique étrangère du gouvernement britannique, a proposé plusieurs principes visant à limiter l’invocation de cette justification dans le cadre de l’article 51.

Les « principes Bethlehem », qui restent contestés, soutiennent que l’article 51 peut couvrir les attaques réelles ou imminentes perpétrées par des groupes terroristes, mais uniquement si les conditions de nécessité (le recours à la force en légitime défense est vraiment un dernier recours) et la proportionnalité sont respectées.

De plus, en règle générale, le recours à la force sur le territoire d’un autre État nécessite le consentement de cet État. Les seules exceptions limitées concernent les cas où il existe une conviction raisonnable et objective que l’État hôte est complice avec le groupe terroriste ou est incapable ou refuse de l’empêcher de mener ses projets à bien, et où aucune autre option raisonnable n’existe hormis le recours à la force.

Israël soutient que les dirigeants du Hamas basés à l’étranger, dans des pays tels que le Qatar, le Liban et l’Iran, continuent de faire partie de la structure de commandement qui orchestre des attaques contre ses soldats à Gaza et ses citoyens en Israël.

Toutefois, cette affirmation ne suffit pas à justifier le recours à la légitime défense selon les principes énoncés par Bethlehem.

De l’aveu même de Nétanyahou, l’objectif de la frappe contre le Qatar était de riposter, et non d’empêcher une attaque en cours ou imminente.

On peut également se demander si le principe de proportionnalité a été respecté, compte tenu du contexte diplomatique dans lequel s’inscrit cette frappe contre un État souverain et du risque de dommages disproportionnés pour les civils dans cette partie de Doha, qui abrite de nombreuses résidences diplomatiques.

Israël a ciblé des dirigeants politiques se trouvant dans un État tiers, alors que cet État est engagé dans une médiation entre Israël et le Hamas : voilà qui invite tout particulièrement à se demander si la force était le seul moyen possible pour faire face à la menace posée par le Hamas.

De plus, en vertu de ces principes, Israël devrait démontrer que le Qatar est soit de mèche avec le Hamas, soit incapable ou peu disposé à l’arrêter, et qu’il n’existait aucun autre moyen efficace ou raisonnable de réagir à la situation.

Il est vrai que le Qatar accueille les bureaux politiques du Hamas depuis 2012 et est l’un des principaux bailleurs de fonds du mouvement depuis son arrivée au pouvoir à Gaza.

Mais il est tout aussi vrai que le Qatar joue un important rôle de médiateur depuis les attentats du 7 octobre 2023.

Il est donc difficile d’affirmer que le Qatar ne souhaite pas ou ne peut pas neutraliser des opérations commanditées par le Hamas depuis son territoire. Sa médiation suggère également qu’il existe une alternative raisonnablement efficace à la force pour contrer les actions du Hamas.

Le verdict

Conduites sans l’autorisation du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies, les frappes israéliennes contre le Qatar semblent constituer une violation de la souveraineté territoriale, voire un acte d’agression au sens de la Charte des Nations unies.

Cette interprétation est renforcée par l’approche restrictive adoptée par la Cour internationale de justice en matière de légitime défense contre des acteurs non étatiques dans des États tiers, et par ses exigences strictes en matière de proportionnalité et de nécessité – exigences qui ne semblent pas avoir été respectées dans le cas présent.

The Conversation

Shannon Bosch ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Israël peut-il invoquer la légitime défense pour justifier sa frappe au Qatar ? – https://theconversation.com/israel-peut-il-invoquer-la-legitime-defense-pour-justifier-sa-frappe-au-qatar-265008

Pourquoi mon enfant oublie toujours ses affaires – et comment l’aider

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Celia Harris, Associate Professor in Cognitive Science, Western Sydney University

Si certaines petites filles et certains petits garçons sont particulièrement distraits, il n’est pas évident pour les enfants en général de bien se rappeler du matériel scolaire à apporter ou de veiller sur leurs affaires. Explications.


En cette période de reprise scolaire, nombreux sont les parents et les enseignants qui vont de nouveau entendre des phrases comme « Je ne retrouve plus mon pull » ou « J’ai laissé mon bonnet à la maison ». Pour les parents d’enfants plus âgés, les objets perdus peuvent avoir encore plus de valeur : téléphones portables, ordinateurs portables oubliés dans le bus…

En tant que parent, il peut être tentant de prendre les choses en main en préparant soi-même les cartables des plus jeunes ou en envoyant aux plus âgés une liste des choses à ne pas oublier à la fin de chaque journée.

Cependant, faire les choses à leur place, c’est les priver d’une occasion d’apprendre.

Que se passe-t-il dans les cerveaux des enfants ?

Dans leurs vies bien remplies, nos enfants utilisent et développent constamment leurs compétences de mémorisation : ils doivent se rappeler où ils ont rangé leurs affaires, acquérir de nouvelles connaissances à l’école et retenir les routines quotidiennes.

Le développement de la mémoire prospective – qui consiste à se souvenir de ce qu’on doit faire dans le futur – est un enjeu particulièrement complexe.

C’est elle que les enfants utilisent lorsqu’ils posent leur gourde pendant la récréation et doivent se rappeler de la reprendre plus tard, ou lorsqu’ils reçoivent un mot de leur professeur et doivent se rappeler de le montrer à leurs parents après l’école. La vivacité de la mémoire prospective implique le bon fonctionnement de plusieurs processus cognitifs.

Les enfants doivent prêter attention à ce qui est nécessaire dans une situation donnée (« Je ne peux pas jouer dehors si je n’ai pas de chapeau »), puis formuler et mémoriser une intention d’action particulière (« Je dois emporter mon chapeau à l’école »). Cette intention, ils doivent se la rappeler au moment crucial (en prenant leur chapeau avant de sortir). Et pouvoir « se rappeler de se rappeler » nécessite un déclenchement spontané de la mémoire, au bon moment, sans aide ni rappel.

Ces processus nécessitent une compétence cognitive appelée « fonction exécutive » qui nous permet de contrôler consciemment notre attention et notre mémoire et de nous engager dans des tâches intellectuelles compliquées.

Les processus qui dépendent de cette fonction exécutive sont complexes, c’est pourquoi les bouteilles de boisson perdues et les chapeaux oubliés sont des expériences frustrantes si courantes dans la vie des parents.

A parents packs her child’s bag
Tout faire à la place d’un enfant le prive d’une occasion d’apprendre.
Halfpoint/Shutterstock

Même chez les adultes, la majorité des erreurs de mémoire au quotidien concernent la mémoire prospective.

Par rapport à d’autres compétences comme le langage ou le jeu, les fonctions exécutives se développent plus tard dans l’enfance. En effet, le cortex préfrontal, qui sous-tend les tâches liées aux fonctions exécutives, n’atteint sa maturité qu’au début de l’âge adulte.

Cela signifie que l’oubli est courant chez les enfants et fait naturellement partie de leur développement. Il y a de fortes chances que vous ayez été comme ça vous aussi quand vous étiez à leur place (vous ne vous en souvenez peut-être pas).

Certains enfants ont-ils plus de difficultés avec la mémoire prospective ?

En matière de fonctions exécutives, les différences sont grandes d’un enfant à l’autre (comme d’un adulte à l’autre). Si tous les enfants progressent au fil du temps, ils ne le font pas au même rythme.

Les enfants présentant un trouble du déficit de l’attention avec ou sans hyperactivité (TDAH) sont plus susceptibles d’être concernés par les oublis. Dans le cas du TDAH de type inattentif, ils ont plus tendance à perdre des objets et à se dissiper lors d’activités quotidiennes telles que les tâches ménagères ou les courses.

Ces enfants finiront par développer leur mémoire prospective avec le temps, mais ils peuvent être plus distraits que leurs camarades du même âge.

Comment aider des enfants à être moins distraits ?

Établissez des routines et respectez-les. Des études montrent que les routines aident les enfants à développer leurs capacités cognitives et leur maîtrise de soi. Les enfants mémorisent mieux une routine lorsqu’elle est « automatisée », c’est-à-dire pratiquée suffisamment souvent pour qu’ils la suivent sans y penser.

Encouragez la « métacognition », c’est-à-dire la conscience de ses propres processus cognitifs. Une étude suggère que les enfants ont tendance à surévaluer leur capacité à mémoriser. Les parents et les enseignants peuvent les aider à prendre conscience de la difficulté de cette tâche et à mettre en place des stratégies efficaces.

Donnez l’exemple ! Ainsi, vous pouvez établir vos propres listes et astuces pour vous aider à vous souvenir des tâches quotidiennes. Vous pouvez également instaurer une routine familiale consistant à déposer les sacs près de la porte et à les vérifier la veille au soir. Ne le faites pas à leur place, faites-le ensemble.

N’hésitez pas à demander l’aide d’un professionnel si vous êtes inquiet. Tous les enfants ont des oublis de temps à autre, certains plus que d’autres. Si votre enfant est particulièrement distrait ou étourdi, il peut être utile de consulter un médecin généraliste ou un psychologue scolaire. Les troubles tels que le TDAH doivent être évalués dans plusieurs contextes (par exemple, à la maison et à l’école, ou à la maison et au sport) et répondre à des critères spécifiques. Un diagnostic peut être utile pour mettre en place les aides nécessaires.

Les attitudes à éviter

Ne comptez pas sur les enfants pour se souvenir spontanément de ce qu’il faut faire : c’est l’aspect le plus difficile de la mémoire prospective ! Utilisez plutôt des listes et des aide-mémoire. Par exemple, s’ils oublient systématiquement leur gourde à l’école, vous pouvez mettre une étiquette sur leur cahier de textes avec la mention « Où est ta gourde ? » Utiliser des rappels n’est pas tricher, c’est favoriser la réussite.

Ne vous inquiétez pas trop des erreurs, elles sont normales. Une étude menée auprès d’enfants âgés de 3 ans à 5 ans a montré que les récompenses sous forme de friandises ne suffisaient pas à améliorer les performances. Les punitions ne sont pas non plus efficaces. Utilisez plutôt les oublis comme des occasions d’apprendre : réfléchissez à la manière d’ajuster votre stratégie la prochaine fois.

Ne tardez pas à réagir. L’anxiété et le stress peuvent augmenter le risque d’oublis, car les enfants peuvent facilement se sentir dépassés. Préparez les sacs la veille, entraînez-vous à suivre de nouvelles routines et évitez autant que possible de vous précipiter.

Évitez les jugements. Les défaillances de la mémoire prospective sont parfois perçues comme des défauts de caractère, en particulier lorsqu’elles affectent d’autres personnes (comme lorsqu’on oublie de rendre un objet emprunté). Comprendre comment fonctionne la mémoire permet de réaliser au contraire que l’oubli fait partie intégrante de la vie quotidienne et du développement des enfants.

The Conversation

Celia Harris a reçu des financements de l’Australian Research Council et du Longitude Prize on Dementia.

Penny Van Bergen a reçu des financements de l’ARC, de Marsden, de Google et de la Fondation James Kirby.

ref. Pourquoi mon enfant oublie toujours ses affaires – et comment l’aider – https://theconversation.com/pourquoi-mon-enfant-oublie-toujours-ses-affaires-et-comment-laider-264913

Crashing black holes validate Stephen Hawking – new research

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Patricia Schmidt, Associate Professor of Physics, University of Birmingham

Black holes may be the fiercest objects in the universe, yet we still know very little about them. It has only been a decade since we confirmed their existence by detecting gravitational waves: ripples in the fabric of spacetime.

Since then, gravitational waves from colliding black holes have unveiled insights into their hidden physics and the theories that support them. On January 14, 2025, the loudest gravitational-wave signal ever detected, known as GW250114, was observed by the two Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatories (LIGO).

This remarkable event provided our international team of scientists with a golden opportunity to test two major predictions of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity with unprecedented precision: the nature of black holes and something called Hawking’s area law theorem.

The results, published in Physical Review Letters, mark a significant step forward in our understanding of gravity and black holes.

Black holes are a key prediction of general relativity, our leading theory for describing gravity. Astrophysical black holes form when a massive star reaches the end of its life and collapses under its own gravity, exceeding a certain mass called the Chandrasekhar limit (approximately 1.44 times the mass of the sun).

What remains is a region of spacetime completely disconnected from communication with the rest of the universe, bounded by a surface known as the event horizon – from which nothing can famously escape, not even light. But if black holes cannot send signals or light beyond this boundary, how can we be sure they exist and that they behave as predicted?

The power of gravitational waves

General relativity actually predicted the existence of gravitational waves in the first place. Any massive object that accelerates through spacetime will generate tiny distortions that propagate away at the speed of light. These waves encode a wealth of information about the source and the nature of gravity itself.

To produce gravitational waves strong enough to be detected, we need systems where massive objects undergo sustained and intense acceleration. One of the most powerful sources is a binary black hole, where two black holes orbit each other under the influence of gravity. As gravitational waves carry energy away from the system, the orbit will gradually shrink until the black holes eventually merge into a single, larger black hole.

Hence, by analysing gravitational waves from black hole binaries we can probe whether astrophysical black holes truly behave as predicted by general relativity.

Gravitational waves were first observed by the LIGO detectors on September 14, 2015, when they captured the collision of two black holes known as GW150914. Due to the rapid improvements in detector technology, we are now able to observe binary black hole mergers in ultra-high definition, enabling the single most stringent tests of general relativity and black hole physics to date.

Hawking’s theorem

Despite their mathematical complexity, black holes are surprisingly simple objects entirely characterised by their mass, rotation and (possibly) electromagnetic charge.

In 1972, Stephen Hawking published a seminal study showing that as two black holes merge, the surface area of the final event horizon must be larger than the sum of the surface areas of the two initial black holes. This is known as the area law.

One way to understand this is to realise that the surface area of the event horizon scales with the mass and spin of the black hole in very particular ways. If we double the mass of a black hole, its event horizon becomes four times larger. If we make the black hole spin faster, the event horizon will become more oblate (think of a rugby ball) and the surface area will decrease. For merging black holes, Hawking demonstrated that despite the loss of energy and angular momentum to gravitational waves, it will always result in a final black hole that has a larger event horizon.

GW250114 provided us with a golden opportunity to test Hawking’s predictions.
By analysing the gravitational-wave data with the best available models, our team has now validated the area law to high significance. This was possible through the detailed modelling of the “ringdown”, the final stage after the merger during which the remnant black hole emits gravitational waves in a characteristic pattern (known as quasi-normal modes).

This process is similar to striking a bell: the tones emitted depend on the material and shape of the bell, with the ringing of the bell encoding this information. By analysing the emitted sound, we can figure out the shape and material of the bell. For rotating black holes, we can do something similar using gravitational waves.

By analysing the emitted waves and all its harmonics, we can reconstruct the mass and spin of the black hole, and hence the surface area of the horizon.
With a signal this strong, we were able to carry out a comprehensive suite of tests probing different aspects of Einstein’s theory. In every case, the predictions of general relativity held firmly.

The observation of GW250114 offers the clearest validation yet of Einstein’s theory, validating some of its most profound predictions, including Hawking’s area law. This is still just the beginning, and the next decade promises to revolutionise our understanding of gravity and black holes even further.

The Conversation

Patricia Schmidt receives funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) through grants ST/V005677/1 and ST/Y00423X/1, and The Royal Society through a Research Grant RGR1241327.

Geraint Pratten is supported by The Royal Society through a University Research Fellowship (URFR1221500 and RFERE221015), the UK Space Agency (grant ST/Y004922/1), and UKRI (grants ST/V005677/1 and ST/Y00423X/1).

ref. Crashing black holes validate Stephen Hawking – new research – https://theconversation.com/crashing-black-holes-validate-stephen-hawking-new-research-264995

Signs of ancient life may have been found in Martian rock – new study

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Sean McMahon, Reader in Astrobiology, University of Edinburgh

Just over a year ago, Nasa made a remarkable announcement. The Perseverance rover had found potential signs of ancient life on Mars. Now, the technical details behind that discovery have been published in a Nature paper that, despite its rather modest wording, may ultimately prove to be among the most significant in the history of science.

The bottom line is this: it might be life, but we won’t know for sure until we return the samples to Earth. Perseverance has already collected a fragment of the relevant rock — we just have to go and get it.

Indeed, Nasa has been working with the European Space Agency on a mission to go to Mars, retrieve the samples of rock collected by Perseverance and deliver them to Earth. This would include the sample from the rock that’s the subject of the Nature study. However, the mission, known as Mars Sample Return, has run into trouble because of rising costs.

In mid-2024, the Perseverance rover encountered a block of ancient mudstone, nicknamed Cheyava Falls, distinguished by its brick-red hue. This rock was laid down by water roughly four billion years ago. While most Martian rocks appear red due to a coating of oxidised (ferric) iron dust, Cheyava Falls is red through and through – the ferric iron is in the rock itself.

More intriguingly, Cheyava Falls is peppered with dozens of tiny pale spots, typically less than a millimetre across. These spots are fringed with a dark phosphorus-rich mineral, which also appears as tiny dots called poppy seeds that are scattered between the other spots. Associated with this mineral are traces of ancient organic compounds. (Organic compounds contain carbon and are fundamental to life on Earth, but they also exist in the absence of biology.)

What does this have to do with life?

All living organisms on Earth harness energy through oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions – transferring electron particles from chemicals known as reductants to compounds named oxidants. On Earth, for example, structures called mitochondria in animal cells transfer electrons from glucose (a reductant) to oxygen (an oxidant). Some rock dwelling bacteria use other kinds of organic compound instead of glucose, and ferric iron instead of oxygen.

Serpentine Rapids
A rock dubbed Serpentine Rapids also showed features reminiscent of reduction spots.
Nasa JPL-Caltech

When ferric iron is reduced to a different form, known as ferrous iron, it becomes soluble in water and either leaches away or reacts to form new, lighter-coloured minerals. The result is that many red rocks and sediments on Earth contain small bleached spots – “reduction spots” – strikingly similar to those found in Cheyava Falls. In fact, Perseverance subsequently spotted bleached features even more reminiscent of reduction spots at a site called Serpentine Rapids, but spent too little time there to analyse them and, unfortunately, didn’t collect any samples.

The new Nature paper builds on abstracts presented at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, held in Houston in March 2025, but with more detail and the added weight of peer review. It confirms that the pale spots are associated with organic matter, and that they contain ferrous iron and sulphur – specifically, an iron-sulphide mineral.

The most plausible interpretation is that redox reactions occurred within the rock after it formed, transferring electrons from organic matter to ferric iron and sulphate, and producing bleached zones where ferric iron was depleted.

Perseverance
Perseverance with the Cheyava Falls rock.
Nasa JPL-Caltech

Notably, these reactions – especially sulphate reduction – don’t typically occur at the low temperatures this rock experienced over its history. Unless microbes are involved, that is. Microbial oxidation of organic matter can also produce phosphate minerals, like those found at Cheyava Falls.

Without getting samples back to laboratories on Earth, there’s only so much we can really know about what happened at Cheyava Falls four billion years ago. Even so, no entirely satisfying non-biological explanation accounts for the full suite of observations made by Perseverance.

The new paper does a good job of making this clear, considering the possibilities one by one. But in astrobiology, the lack of a non-biological explanation isn’t where life detection ends – it’s where it begins. History tells us that when we can’t think of a non-biological explanation for something, it’s usually not because there isn’t one. It’s just that we haven’t thought of it yet.

So what happens next? First, astrobiologists around the world must explore which oxidation-reduction reactions involving iron, sulphur, organic compounds, and phosphate can occur with and without biology under conditions relevant to Cheyava Falls.

Second, Nasa and other space agencies must provide bold leadership on the Mars Sample Return mission. Yes, it will be expensive – possibly tens of billions of dollars – but the payoff could be the most important scientific discovery ever made.

The Conversation

Sean McMahon has previously received funding from NASA.

ref. Signs of ancient life may have been found in Martian rock – new study – https://theconversation.com/signs-of-ancient-life-may-have-been-found-in-martian-rock-new-study-264960

Trump’s radical argument that he alone can interpret vague laws fails its first court test in dismissal of Fed governor

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Claire B. Wofford, Associate Professor of Political Science, College of Charleston

The firing of Federal Reserve board member Lisa Cook isn’t just about Lisa Cook − it’s about presidential power. DNY59/Getty Images

President Donald Trump’s penchant to act first, ask later was on full display recently when he became the first president in American history to fire a member of the Federal Reserve Board.

Trump’s axing of federal employees is nothing new – thousands have been terminated, including the heads of agencies that, like the Federal Reserve, are designed to be insulated from presidential control.

But in removing Lisa Cook, Trump has entered into a morass of legal questions and challenged long-standing beliefs about the power of the president to control the U.S. economy.

Trump’s action, if upheld by courts, would upend the Fed’s century-long practice of formulating the nation’s monetary policy free from political pressure. It also could affect the budget of every American household, with the cost of goods and services influenced by political ideology more than financial expertise.

As a scholar of the American courts, I believe that, depending upon how courts resolve the case, it could also mark a significant shift in the ability of the judicial branch to check executive power.

Two men in dark blue suits, one standing behind a lectern and microphone.
Before he fired Lisa Cook, President Trump had spent months publicly attacking Federal Reserve Board Chairman Jerome Powell, right.
Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images

This agency is different

The dispute with Cook reached the public on Aug. 20, 2025, when Trump-appointed director of the Federal Finance Housing Agency Bill Pulte announced on social media that he had made a criminal referral to the Department of Justice about potential mortgage fraud by Cook. The DOJ subsequently opened an official investigation.

After Pulte’s announcement, Trump posted, “Cook must resign, now!!!” She refused and was officially fired by Trump five days later.

Cook then filed suit in federal court on Aug. 28, asking U.S. District Judge Jia Cobb to issue an emergency order blocking her removal. Cobb did just that on Sept. 9, 2025.

Cobb’s order, however, will likely be appealed by Trump. In the meantime, Cook will stay on the job and participate in decisions made by the Fed, which is set to meet again on Sept. 16.

Among the multitude of cases about Trump’s ability to fire employees of federal agencies, this one is different – because the agency is different.

Created by Congress in 1913 after a series of banking panics, the Federal Reserve is charged with managing the nation’s economy. It acts as the national bank, monitors the health of other financial institutions, and, most critically, develops monetary policy, which includes setting interest rates, the primary tool with which it manages inflation and ensures long-term economic growth and stability.

Precisely because of the Fed’s power, presidents have often tried to influence it. Sharp criticism of its members is nothing new. Trump has an ongoing and very public fight with the chair of the Fed board, Jerome Powell, about interest rates.

But a president actually firing a board member is something else entirely.

Supreme Court warning

The Fed is just one of dozens of what are termed “independent agencies.” These are part of the executive branch but designed by Congress to operate insulated from the president’s preferences and pressure. Over time, precisely because it is so powerful, the Fed’s ability to act free from the president has become particularly sacrosanct.

The primary mechanisms through which Congress ensures agency independence are “removal provisions,” statutory directives that define when and why the president can fire agency leadership. The Federal Reserve Act, the law that creates the Fed and sets out its structure and mission, provides that members of the board, called “Governors,” serve 14-year terms, “unless sooner removed for cause by the President.”

“For cause” may sound familiar because its appearance in a different law also recently triggered litigation. That happened when Trump removed the heads of two other independent agencies, Gwynne Wilcox of the National Labor Relations Board and Cathy Harris of the Merit Systems Protection Board. The Supreme Court decided in April that the restriction on the president’s ability to fire those two independent agency heads violated Article 2 of the Constitution.




Read more:
Supreme Court ignores precedent instead of overruling it in allowing president to fire officials whom Congress tried to make independent


In that same opinion, however, the court took pains to specify that its ruling did not apply to the Federal Reserve Board. Calling the Fed a “uniquely structured, quasi-private agency” with a “distinct historical tradition,” the majority signaled to Trump that booting members off the Federal Reserve Board was a no-go.

When he fired Cook, Trump flouted this directive. A legal battle was inevitable.

Four people sitting at one end of a large wooden table, at a meeting.
Lisa Cook, second from right, at a Federal Reserve board meeting in Washington, D.C., on June 25, 2025.
Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images

What’s behind the case

The case is complex and involves questions about whether Cook’s termination violates a congressional statute and the due process clause of the U.S. Constitution.

Notably, the parties are not arguing about the constitutionality of the removal provision itself, as they were in the Wilcox case. Instead, the dispute centers primarily around the meaning of “for cause” – that is, what reasons can legally justify firing a board governor. Unlike other statutes, which use additional terms such as “inefficiency, neglect or malfeasance of duty while in office,” the Federal Reserve Act provides no further guidance.

Trump argues that the – alleged – mortgage fraud is sufficient “cause” to remove Cook, particularly from an agency charged with managing the nation’s finances. Cook claims that mere allegations about private conduct before she was appointed to the board cannot justify her termination, particularly when those allegations appear to be a pretext for a political disagreement.

But lurking in the background of this seemingly picayune fight over a single word in a 111-year-old statute are fundamental questions about separation of powers, checks and balances, and which branch of government determines the law.

‘Say what the law is’

Trump’s fuller argument is actually quite bold.

As he is doing in other lawsuits, the president is asserting that he – and he alone – gets to determine the meaning of “cause.” The term, his lawyers write, is “capacious” and its meaning is entirely vested by Congress in the president. No court can second-guess his judgment.

The claim is striking and seems to fly in the face of the country’s system of checks and balances. In addition, if the branch of government charged with carrying out the law – the executive branch – also gets to define it, separation of powers also appears to be left by the wayside.

Cook counters that judicial review of termination decisions is critical.

If courts abandon their responsibility here, she argues, they will obliterate the independence of the Federal Reserve and subject the national economy to the short-term whims of a president rather than the long-term vision of economic experts.

In her order blocking Trump’s removal of Cook, Judge Cobb declared that the court has a “responsibility to review” the president’s firing of Cook, rejecting Trump’s claim that the decision was immune from judicial oversight.

And given the clear and continued acquiescence of Congress to this president’s broad assertions of power, they would also remove what, at least until the next presidential election, may be the last remaining check on executive power.

The case will likely reach the Supreme Court this fall, and the outcome is hard to predict. Trump has benefited from a string of victories there issued by a conservative majority that believes strongly in executive power and judicial deference to the president.

At the same time, it will be difficult to ignore the sentiments about the independence of the Fed that those same conservative justices expressed in the Wilcox case and the potential economic consequences a ruling for Trump might generate.

The court’s ultimate decision may actually depend upon what role it wants to play in the country’s fraying democratic system. The legendary Chief Justice John Marshall famously wrote in 1803 that it is “emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary department to say what the law is,” a sentiment inscribed on the marble wall of the Supreme Court building in D.C.

This case provides the opportunity to see whether the maxim still holds true.

This story has been updated to reflect U.S. District Judge Jia M. Cobb’s Sept. 9, 2025, decision blocking President Trump from removing Cook from the Federal Reserve Board.

The Conversation

Claire B. Wofford does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Trump’s radical argument that he alone can interpret vague laws fails its first court test in dismissal of Fed governor – https://theconversation.com/trumps-radical-argument-that-he-alone-can-interpret-vague-laws-fails-its-first-court-test-in-dismissal-of-fed-governor-264566

2027 Nigerian poll could trigger unrest unless electoral commission is fixed

Source: The Conversation – Africa (2) – By Onyedikachi Madueke, Teaching Assistant, University of Aberdeen

Political activities heralding Nigeria’s 2027 general elections are beginning to pick up.

Politicians are limbering up, alliances are being whispered about, political war chests are being filled, and campaign narratives are being sharpened.

The country’s rapidly growing social mobilisation (online and offline) places great demands on the electoral system. Especially the referee – the Independent National Electoral Commission.

If it can’t deliver credible polls, the country risks sliding into political unrest.

In 2022, a new Electoral Act handed the commission new powers, legalised the use of election technology, and guaranteed its funding a year ahead of the polls.

But there were still reports of irregularities.

Flawed elections do more than produce disputed winners – they deepen cynicism, depress turnout, and risk violence.

Nigeria’s example matters. It’s Africa’s largest democracy. Its electoral standards influence the region. If 2027 repeats 2023’s failures, other west African leaders might feel they can treat election commissions as political tools.

My recently published research examined the factors constraining Nigeria’s electoral commission from conducting credible elections and safeguarding electoral integrity, using the 2023 polls as a case study.

The study identified four issues undermining the commission’s effectiveness: eroded autonomy, corruption, weak adherence to its own rules, and compromised personnel recruitment.

The commission needs legal reinforcement to shield it from state capture, improve its technological capacity, deepen civic engagement and accountability, and safeguard electoral integrity.

Why the commission struggles to deliver credible polls

For my study I interviewed senior electoral commission staff, representatives of political parties (the All Progressives Congress, People’s Democratic Party and Labour Party) and other political stakeholders. I also drew on materials from the commission’s website, relevant online sources, news reports, social media content, and official documents.

Some of the key issues identified include:

1.) Independence

On paper, the electoral commission is financially independent. But the real power lies in leadership appointments, which remain in the hands of the president, subject to Senate confirmation.

In practice, appointees are often politically connected, sometimes openly partisan. Civil society groups flagged these risks ahead of 2023, but partisan nominees still took up sensitive electoral posts.

This matters because leadership shapes decisions. The commission’s abandonment of real-time result uploads in the 2023 presidential poll – a core promise – fuelled suspicions of political influence.

2.) Corruption

Politicians and insiders alike admit that electoral officials, especially temporary staff, are routinely offered and often accept cash inducements. The euphemism is “sachet water” money. The impact is serious: turning a blind eye to vote buying, altering result sheets, or simply ensuring “friendly” polling officers are assigned to strategic locations.

The 2023 polls brought fresh allegations: from officials charging voters to collect their voter cards, to attempted bribes for changing the result figures.

3.) Technology

The biggest promise of 2023 was about technology. The biometric voter accreditation system and result viewing portal were designed to stop the familiar rigging playbook: stuffing ballot boxes, falsifying tallies, and “doctoring” results. The commission told voters that presidential results would be uploaded in real time. It didn’t happen.

On election day, the commission blamed “technical glitches” for the failure to upload presidential results. Oddly, the same system worked fine for National Assembly results cast the same day. Investigative journalists later uncovered glaring discrepancies between polling-unit figures and the results published on the portal.

Many believe abandoning the result viewing portal technology made it easier for the result of the 2023 presidential poll to be manipulated. This wasn’t just a technical hiccup; it was a breach of legal guidelines and public trust.

4.) Workforce

The electoral commission’s permanent staff is small; for a nationwide election, it leans on over a million ad hoc recruits. The recruitment process is vulnerable to political interference.

Training is inconsistent, with little formal induction for new permanent staff and ad hoc workers alike. As experienced staff retire without structured knowledge transfer, institutional memory weakens. Add in the temptation of bribes, and you have a workforce prone to both errors and manipulation.

Four reforms for a credible 2027 poll

If Nigeria is serious about credible polls, reform of the electoral commission must start now. Four priorities stand out:

1.) Merit-based leadership and staff recruitment: Remove the president’s sole power to appoint the commission’s top leadership. A multi-stakeholder panel should vet and nominate candidates. The commission must have a standing professional electoral service corps (career election officers) to replace the heavy reliance on temporary workers.

2.) Improve technology and enforce rule compliance: The commission needs a stronger ICT infrastructure, redundancy systems, and independent audits of its electoral technology. Publishing results promptly at the polling unit level (and protecting them from tampering) is critical. Update and integrate the voter register with biometric and national ID systems.

3.) Legal and dispute resolution: Pre-election litigation timelines should be tightened so that disputes over candidacy, party primaries and voter registration are settled well before election day. Post-election adjudication must also be concluded prior to inauguration.

Stricter penalties are necessary to end the culture of impunity surrounding electoral offences. Swift trials, stiff sanctions, and disqualification of political actors who benefit from malpractice should be enforced.

4.) Civic engagement and accountability: The commission must educate voters, particularly on issues such as vote buying, technology, and citizens’ rights.

Civil society observers, media and civic tech groups should get open access and be treated as partners.

Accountability reports before, during and after elections are essential to rebuild public trust and confidence in the electoral process.

Conclusion

The race for 2027 is already on, but the real contest isn’t between the parties or personalities. It’s between a compromised electoral institution and the reforms needed to make it worthy of public trust.

Nigeria needs to fix the electoral commission’s independence, root out its corruption, enforce its rules, and professionalise its workforce.

The Conversation

Onyedikachi Madueke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. 2027 Nigerian poll could trigger unrest unless electoral commission is fixed – https://theconversation.com/2027-nigerian-poll-could-trigger-unrest-unless-electoral-commission-is-fixed-263974

Decision-making on national interest projects demands openness and rigour

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Robert B. Gibson, Professor of Environment, Resources and Sustainability, University of Waterloo

The federal government is about to refer its initial selection of national interest project candidates to its new Major Projects Office. The news stirs both excitement and trepidation.

Projects considered in the national interest would “enhance Canada’s prosperity, national security, economic security, national defence and national autonomy,” the government says.

While the notion of national interest projects is compelling, success on the ground depends on thinking through the implementation. There’s little evidence that’s happened.

The enabling law — the Building Canada Act, hustled through Parliament in June — establishes separate decision-making steps for project approval and for approval conditions, but not much else. How the candidate projects will be evaluated is mostly unknown.




Read more:
Why the federal government must act cautiously on fast-tracking project approvals


Big project challenges

Major project development is notoriously difficult. That’s evident in the long global record of megaproject cost overruns and embarrassments. It’s not surprising, given the organizational, economic and technical complexities, inevitable trade-offs and opposition and attractive alternative uses for the money.

For the current initiative, additional practical difficulties include:

  • How to share implementation power and responsibility with many players, given the constitutional fragmentation of jurisdictional authority;

  • How to respect Indigenous rights and consent;

  • How to cover the multitude of linked factors that should inform overall public-interest evaluations and justifications for decisions;

  • How to achieve reasonable reliability in predicting the positive and adverse effects and their distribution, especially for projects expected to induce further activities;

  • How to draw well-supported conclusions about project viability, serious opportunities and risks, costs and legacies, in an uncertain global economic, geopolitical and climate context; and

  • For non-renewable resource projects, how to use limited-life gains to build more lasting well-being, while avoiding dependencies, stranded assets and toxic legacies.

Dealing with all these matters entails careful elaboration of the Building Canada Act’s basic two-step process for decisions on national interest projects.

It also requires a departure from the approach so far, which has identified potential candidates through a cloaked process involving proponents and relevant political jurisdictions without published criteria for evaluating the projects or clear plans for the deliberations to follow.

Defensible evaluations and decisions

Before candidates are referred to the Major Projects Office, all parties would benefit from the publication of a well-defined, open and rigorous approach that ensures defensible evaluations and decisions.

As set out with few specifics in the Building Canada Act, the two decision-making steps are:

  1. Evaluations leading to a determination on whether to pre-approve the candidate project;
  2. Expedited assessment and provision of permits to consolidate the conditions of approval.

The sequence seemingly ignores the normal process where assessment precedes approval (first consider, then decide). In practice, however, defensible decision-making in Step 1 must have detailed project information and a strong overall assessment of the project’s benefits, risks and uncertainties.

That’s a basic necessity if the government wants decisions on the pre-approval of projects to be well-founded and justifiable, and if the project planning is to be far enough advanced to be ready for the for Step 2’s expedited process for conditions of approval.

Process essentials

For Step 1, the Major Projects Office should provide specifics on the following requirements for decision-making on pre-approval:

  • Well-elaborated, comprehensive and visibly applied criteria for evaluations;

  • Detailed project information;

  • Analyses covering specifics on all the key considerations and their interactions;

  • Mobilized expertise for due diligence rigour in evaluating project viability, opportunities, risks and trade-offs;

  • Special imperatives for responsibility in allocating public funding;

  • Solidly defensible decisions, clearly based on well-informed analyses, while also respecting controversies and uncertainties;

  • Credible transparency and meaningful engagement;

  • Detailed project readiness for the expedited conditions and the permits process; and

  • Clarity about how other authorities are involved in Step 1 and will collaborate, especially in joint assessments, in Step 2.

One project, one assessment

The final point above may present the greatest challenges and opportunities.

The federal government has emphasized a commitment to “one project, one assessment” that will apply often. But many of the reported candidate projects involve several jurisdictions.

Perhaps in a few cases, one assessment could be achieved by deferring largely to a single provincial or territorial process. But where two or more provinces, territories and/or Indigenous jurisdictions are involved — or the project depends on significant federal funding — a joint assessment process is necessary.

Exemplary joint assessments have been conducted in Canada before. Doing so today for fast-tracked mega-projects would be a major accomplishment, especially if those joint assessments prioritize best practices and respect Indigenous rights, including the right to give or withhold free, prior and informed consent.




Read more:
‘Elbows up’ in Canada means sustainable resource development


Rigour and transparency

In sum, what’s needed now is detailed elaboration of the process for the initial group of identified candidates for national interest projects. That process should incorporate all the components listed above, including a comprehensive and credible equivalent of assessment before the first step’s pre-approval decision.

Such an approach is consistent with the the Building Canada Act and stated policy. Perhaps that’s been the federal government’s intention all along. If so, it must ensure the process is transparent to ensure the understanding and confidence of all participants.

Political enthusiasm is a useful stimulant but a poor guide and a risky base for deliberations and decisions on major projects. Judging the opportunities and risks of national interest projects is important and difficult. It’s time for an open and rigorous process.

The Conversation

Robert B. Gibson has received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Impact Assessment Agency of Canada. He is a member of the Agency’s Technical Advisory Committee.

ref. Decision-making on national interest projects demands openness and rigour – https://theconversation.com/decision-making-on-national-interest-projects-demands-openness-and-rigour-264755

Focusing on children’s first 1,001 days can build neighbourhood support for migrant families

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Tom Allport, Honorary Senior Clinical Lecturer, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol

Royaltyfreecliick.com/Shutterstock

The UK government’s new ten-year health plan for England prioritises tackling health inequalities through local preventive measures. One promising approach is to build on the strengths of migrant families by fostering neighbourhood peer support – particularly for underserved communities.

In wealthy countries, families migrating from low-income countries are often excluded or marginalised in society and lack social support. They often have highly stressed pregnancies and many experience barriers to effective healthcare.

For migrant families, the stresses of migration, poverty, and discrimination can combine to negatively affect their children’s wellbeing and life chances, such as employment. This matters for a large number of children: one in five children born in England and Wales has a parent born in a low-income country.

Promoting early child development improves life chances and saves money. This works best when started before birth, in the “first 1001 days” of life – the period from conception until a child’s second birthday.

Pregnant woman in kitchen
The 1,001 days start before birth.
oliveromg/Shutterstock

The best programmes are available to everyone, but make extra effort to help the people who need them the most. An example is Sure Start, which was introduced in 1999 to support children aged up to the age of five and their families living in disadvantaged areas in England.




Read more:
How England’s scrapped Sure Start centres boosted the health and education of disadvantaged children


Sure Start centres foster social support for parents and help children’s early social and emotional development, as well as providing places for families to get help from a range of health, social, financial and other services. The evidence of Sure Start’s long-term benefits continues to accumulate. However, austerity measures in recent years have seen a massive reduction in Sure Start centres across the country.

Promoting social connectedness and enhancing support may be especially important for migrants and families from communal or collective child-rearing cultures. Our research has shown that better social support for pregnant women from migrant communities in Bradford is linked positively with their children’s social and emotional development.

We have also found that making social connections can be a turning point for parents’ wellbeing, which in turn helps their children’s opportunities for play and interaction. Helping communities build social support and connectedness therefore may be a powerful way to bring about change.

Social connection

Peer support (from people with similar backgrounds) is a very effective way to deliver services and improve lives, including for migrants. This is especially the case when this support can build trust.

Working with communities in Bristol over ten years, we have developed ways for communities, agencies and researchers to work together to activate family strengths through a programme called Find Your Village. Through peer support in the first 1,001 days, we aim to improve family wellbeing, child development, community connectedness, engagement with services, and longer-term life chances.

Find Your Village.

Our approach involves spending time with families, helping them solve problems and draw on their own strengths. Peer supporters also organise group activities and advocate for improvements in neighbourhood environments.

Meeting others from the same neighbourhood can help in lots of ways. For example, free, unstructured play helps children’s physical, social, and emotional wellbeing. At the same time, parents benefit from meeting each other. They can form secure relationships and grow in confidence raising their children, which brings many benefits. Parents can then in turn start to help others and give back to the community.

Many factors may challenge how accessible and helpful health services are for communities with migrant heritage. And not all social support is helpful. What helps both services and communities feel inclusive to families deserves continued attention.

There are some clear messages about how voluntary sector and government agencies can work effectively to reduce inequalities. Action to reduce inequalities works best when agencies and underserved communities work together to build and maintain trust.

Rigid, externally developed programmes are likely to lack cultural appropriateness and contextual fit and are therefore less likely to be taken up by groups who feel less connected in society. Partnership working, and flexibility to adapt to local contexts are therefore key.

Although our focus is on migrant communities, Find Your Village ideas may be relevant in other contexts of structural inequality and disadvantage. Could resourcing peer support to activate the strengths of families and communities help in the design and delivery of the new government health plans?

The Conversation

Tom Allport has previously received funding from the National Institute of Health Research.

Debbie Watson has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and the Arts and Humanities Research Council. She is affiliated with the Labour Party.

ref. Focusing on children’s first 1,001 days can build neighbourhood support for migrant families – https://theconversation.com/focusing-on-childrens-first-1-001-days-can-build-neighbourhood-support-for-migrant-families-264158

South Africa’s student debt trap: two options that could help resolve the problem

Source: The Conversation – Africa – By Michele Van Eck, Associate professor in the School of Law at University of the Witwatersrand, who specialises in the areas of contracts, legal ethics and education. , University of the Witwatersrand

Education is widely regarded as the road to a better life. Yet the rising cost of tertiary education means many students can only go to university if they get financial aid, bursaries or loans.

South Africa’s National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) offers students bursaries or loans which provide allowances for tuition and registration fees, books, travel and accommodation. But this type of funding applies only under specific and limited conditions. Many students fall outside its scope.

Students who are not enrolled for a qualification that is approved by the Department of Higher Education, or who wish to study for a second undergraduate qualification, or who are studying at private institutions, don’t qualify to get the funding.

The result is that many students can’t keep up with paying their university fees. In 2025 South African universities collectively held about R9.3 billion (US$528 million) in student debt that had remained unpaid since 2023.

Universities have been trying different methods to pressure students and graduates to pay outstanding student debts. This has included withholding of degree certificates, academic transcripts and marks.

Universities require funding to operate effectively, pay staff and maintain infrastructure. But withholding academic documents from indebted students may prevent them from securing employment – the very means by which they could repay their debts. These practices, while commercially defensible, often have the opposite effect. According to Unesco, “student loans generally have catastrophic effects for students and families across the world”.

It seems reasonable to conclude that student debt collection practices may entrench poverty and make it harder for graduates to get jobs.

From recent court cases, it appears that this issue is especially pronounced in the legal profession. Law graduates face additional scrutiny, as admission to the profession requires not only academic qualifications but also proof of moral character. The Legal Practice Act 28 of 2014 mandates that candidates be “fit and proper” individuals, embodying values such as honesty, integrity and reliability. Outstanding debt may be seen as a contrast to the values of honesty and integrity.

Fulfilling financial obligations can indeed have a bearing on ethics (a field I study as a legal scholar). But as I argue in a recent paper, it’s necessary to distinguish between graduates who are unwilling to pay and those who are genuinely unable to.

I also propose a couple of ways this could be achieved so that universities get their money and graduates get their start in working life.

How universities collect debt

Unlike South Africa, some countries have taken steps to deal with the impact of student debt.

My paper highlights that, in the United States, several states don’t allow universities and colleges to withhold degree certificates and transcripts (records of academic activity) over unpaid fees. They recognise that those debt-collection practices hinder employment and make inequality worse. Instead, they promote other strategies, like repayment plans related to income, or policies for how to treat students who are experiencing hardship.

In the United Kingdom, universities are advised not to use academic sanctions to recover non-academic debts, such as accommodation fees. Consumer protection laws treat students as consumers, allowing them to challenge unfair contractual terms. If a university’s contract includes provisions to withhold degrees for unpaid fees, students may contest these clauses as unjust.

South Africa lacks similar legal safeguards. Each university sets its own rules. These range from students not being able to graduate unless all fees are paid, to the withholding of certificates from students not in good financial standing, and even preventing students from viewing their examination scripts if they owe money. Some examples may be found at the University of the Free State (page 27), University of Pretoria (page 16) and University of the Witwatersrand.

Law students face additional hurdles

In the legal profession, financial responsibility is often tied to ethical conduct. Lawyers manage trust accounts, client funds and sensitive legal matters. Integrity is non-negotiable.

However, the inability to pay student debts is not inherently dishonest. Some students fall into debt due to circumstances beyond their control, like family obligations, socio-economic conditions, unemployment or the sheer cost of education.

South African courts have grappled with outstanding student debts when it comes to admitting law graduates to the profession. The courts’ approach has been inconsistent.

In Ex Parte Tlotlego the court emphasised that poverty should not bar entry into the legal profession. It said courts should not require proof of debt repayment arrangements, which would be unfair to students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

But in Ex Parte Makamu the court found that a law graduate must still demonstrate how they intend to settle their debts to satisfy the ethical standards of honesty and integrity.

More recently, Ex Parte Galela reinforced this view. The court declined the application for admission because it wasn’t clear why the law graduate hadn’t paid off their debt. It suggested that financial irresponsibility could reflect poorly on the graduate’s character.

The courts’ approach and general student debt-collection practices often fail to differentiate between students who cannot pay and those who choose not to. This distinction is vital. A student who ignores their debt without justification may raise ethical concerns. But a student who is willing to pay yet lacks the financial means should not be penalised.

Solutions

The solution lies in balancing the financial interests of universities with the socio-economic realities of students. Student debts must be repaid, but repayment mechanisms must also be fair and sustainable.

There have been attempts to find a solution, such as the draft Student Relief Bill, which proposes setting up a Student Debt Relief Fund. But that might place unsustainable pressure on the economy.

I have another proposal: allowing graduates to receive their degree certificates regardless of outstanding debt, along with two legislative interventions. These are:

  1. Automatic garnishee orders: upon graduation, an automatic garnishee order (a court order directing an employer to deduct a certain amount from an employee’s income) could be placed on future salaries of a graduate. This would ensure that student debt is repaid over time.

  2. Amendment to the Prescription Act 68 of 1969: This could exclude student debt from prescribing (becoming too old to collect). Normally, such a debt would prescribe after three years. An amendment would allow universities to recover debts for the duration of graduates’ employment, not just within three years.

These measures would uphold the financial sustainability of universities while protecting the dignity and future employment prospects of graduates.

The Conversation

Michele Van Eck does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. South Africa’s student debt trap: two options that could help resolve the problem – https://theconversation.com/south-africas-student-debt-trap-two-options-that-could-help-resolve-the-problem-262555