Category: The Conversation – UK

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Catherine Rolph, Lecturer in Environmental Engineering, The Open University

The public is starting to understand that they can find microplastics in their food, particularly seafood, but exposure from other foods is far more common than most people realise.

Studies have shown that your daily intake of microplastics from food and drink is estimated to be anywhere from zero to 1.5 million microplastic particles per day. The biggest source is likely to be coming from bottled water.

Here are five of the more surprising sources of microplastics in your food and drink.

1. Chewing gum

When you chew gum, you are essentially chewing a lump of plastic. Most chewing gum is made from a gum base (plastics and rubber), to which sweeteners and flavourings are added. As you chew, the gum base releases microplastics. A single gram of chewing gum can release up to 637 microplastic particles.

Natural gums made with plant polymers are not much better. They release a similar number of microplastics as the synthetic gum. This suggests that microplastics aren’t just coming from the gum base but could be due to the introduction of microplastics during the production or packaging process.

Most microplastics were released within the first eight minutes of chewing, so to reduce your exposure, chew one piece of gum for longer, rather than constantly popping in fresh pieces.

2. Salt

Salt may seem like a pure, simple ingredient but studies have shown that 94% of salt products tested worldwide are contaminated with microplastics. The contamination is so widespread that sea salt has even been proposed as an indicator of microplastic pollution in the marine environment.

Contamination has been found to be higher in terrestrial salts, such as Himalayan salt, rather than marine salts. New technologies are being investigated to help clean up sea salt, however, it is likely that much of the contamination comes from production and packaging.

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Read more:
Plastic ‘bio-beads’ from sewage plants are polluting the oceans and spreading superbugs – but there are alternatives

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Your salt grinder might also be making things worse. Disposable plastic spice grinders can release up to 7,628 particles when grinding just 0.1g of salt using a plastic grinder. To minimise your exposure, switch to a grinder with a ceramic or metal grinding mechanism and store salt in non-plastic containers.

3. Apples and carrots

Microplastic contamination of fruit and vegetables has been identified in several studies. Nanoplastics, which are plastic particles smaller than 1,000 nanometres, can enter plants through the roots. Microplastics have also been found on the surface of a variety of fruit and vegetables.

One study found apples and carrots to be the most contaminated and lettuce the least. However, microplastic contamination remains relatively small when compared with more highly processed foods.

While we don’t yet know what the effects of the microplastics are, we do know that antioxidants in fruit and vegetables, such as anthocyanins, which give fruits and vegetables their red, blue and purple colours, keep people healthy, so do keep eating them.

4. Tea and coffee

Teabags are not the only source of microplastics in your hot beverage. Tea leaves, coffee and milk can all be contaminated with microplastics. The use of disposable plastic-lined takeaway cups is one of the biggest sources of microplastic contamination in hot drinks. High temperatures can cause the release of microplastics from the container into the beverage.

Hot drinks contain more microplastics than the iced equivalents so switching to a cold beverage can reduce your exposure. Buying milk in glass bottles has also been shown to result in a lower microplastic load. This doesn’t extend to all drinks, though. A study of bottled drinks demonstrated that soft drinks and beer stored in glass bottles had higher microplastic contamination than plastic bottles, possibly due to contamination from the painted metal bottle caps.

There are a few truly plastic-free teabags available – they use cotton rather than biodegradable plastics to seal their bags. Identifying these brands, however, can be tricky as there is no standard approach to labelling and not all companies are transparent about the composition of their product.

Overall, switching to loose leaf tea and using metal or glass reusable cups are good strategies for reducing microplastic contamination.

5. Seafood

While studies have shown that most seafood is contaminated with microplastics, what is perhaps most surprising about seafood is the amount of attention it receives compared to other food sources. One study showed the levels of microplastics in so-called “filter feeders”, such as mussels, was just 0.2-0.70 microplastic particles per gram. This is significantly less than the 11.6 billion microplastics released when brewing a single cup of tea with a plastic tea bag.

Other steps you can take

Storing food in plastic containers and eating highly processed food are both associated with high concentrations of microplastics in stool samples, so you could try and avoid these. Microwaving food in glass containers rather than plastic is also a good idea to prevent microplastics leaching into your food.

Finally, the single biggest source of microplastics in food and drink is likely to be bottled water with up to 240,000 particles per litre. Switching to tap water can help to significantly reduce your exposure.

While eliminating plastics entirely from our diets may be impossible, making these swaps should help to reduce your exposure.

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Catherine Rolph does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Surprising number of foods contain microplastics. Here’s how to reduce the amount you consume – https://theconversation.com/surprising-number-of-foods-contain-microplastics-heres-how-to-reduce-the-amount-you-consume-270832

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Katie Edwards, Commissioning Editor, Health + Medicine and Host of Strange Health podcast, The Conversation

I have a confession.

When I am stressed, overwhelmed or trying to switch my brain off after a long day, I do not meditate. I do not do breathwork. I am rarely mindful. Instead, I watch YouTube videos of draining boils and earwax extraction.

Deeply satisfying. Genuinely calming. Extremely unsettling to anyone who happens to walk into the room.

I am not alone, although my husband tells me I soon will be if I continue watching acne “removal” videos in bed, particularly at full volume. Gross-out health content is everywhere, and it is wildly popular. Videos of extractions, parasites, clogged pores and bodily “build-ups” rack up millions of views. Articles about strange symptoms, mystery lumps and alarming bodily discoveries consistently top health reading lists.

This is not because people like me are weird. Or at least, not only because we are weird.

It is because bodies are strange, unpredictable and often poorly explained. When something feels embarrassing, frightening or just plain confusing, curiosity kicks in hard.

As a health editor, I commission articles from experts about the parts of the body we are usually taught not to talk about. Time and again, the most-read stories are the ones that make people recoil slightly before clicking anyway. Worms. Smells. Leaks. Stones. Toxins. The things you Google at midnight and hope nobody ever finds in your search history.

Behind the gag reflex, there is usually a serious question. Is this normal? Is this dangerous? Has the internet just convinced me I am dying?

That is why we have launched Strange Health, a new podcast series from The Conversation. In it, I’m teaming up with Dan Baumgardt, a practising GP and lecturer in health and life sciences at the University of Bristol, to decode wellness trends and explore what’s weird and wonderful about the body.

On Strange Health, Dan I will take the health questions people are already obsessing over online, especially the bizarre, gross or misunderstood ones, and examine them properly. In each episode we’ll also be talking to academic experts who are actively researching these issue. We ask where these ideas come from, what the science really says, and why misinformation spreads so easily when bodies get involved.

From guilty pleasure to public health problem

Some of The Conversation’s most popular health articles sit firmly in this territory. Pieces about pina colada-scented vaginas, body stones, brain “holes” and “miracle cures” have attracted hundreds of thousands of readers.

That popularity tells us something important. People are not just looking for reassurance. They are looking for explanations that make sense of what their bodies are doing, and what might genuinely help, without judgement or jargon.

It also explains why misinformation thrives here. The more uncomfortable the topic, the less likely people are to ask a professional, and the more tempting it is to trust a confident stranger online.

Each episode of Strange Health focuses on a single strange or controversial health topic. Some are familiar. Some are genuinely disgusting. All of them have been circulating widely online. There will be gross details. There will be moments of disbelief. There will also be solid science and practical explanations.

If you have ever found yourself spiralling after watching a TikTok, reading a wellness blog, or eyeing up a suspicious supplement advert, Strange Health is designed for you. And we want you to become part of the conversation by submitting your own burning questions about the human body – no matter how strange they may be – to strangehealth@theconversation.com.

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Strange Health launches on 20th January and the first episode is about detoxing. New episodes will be available every Tuesday throughout February and March. You can listen wherever you get your podcasts, or watch on YouTube and Spotify.

Strange Health is hosted by Katie Edwards and Dan Baumgardt. The executive producer is Gemma Ware, with video and sound editing by Sikander Khan. Artwork by Alice Mason.

Listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our RSS feed or find out how else to listen here. A transcript is available via the Apple Podcasts or Spotify apps.

Dan Baumgardt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. Katie Edwards works for The Conversation.

– ref. Introducing Strange Health – a new video podcast from The Conversation – https://theconversation.com/introducing-strange-health-a-new-video-podcast-from-the-conversation-272766

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Jagannadha Pawan Tamvada, Professor of Entrepreneurship, Kingston University

In the UK, as in many other countries, the shift towards electric vehicles (EVs) has been rapid. Incentives, increased choice and some positive PR took the electric car sales to nearly 500,000 vehicles in 2025 – around 24% of the market. But the government’s budget in late November, which outlined new charges for EV owners, may have slammed the brakes on this momentum.

Chancellor Rachel Reeves revealed that EV owners will face a new 3p-per-mile road charge from April 2028, marking a significant shift in how the government taxes cleaner forms of transport. The owners of plug-in hybrids will pay 1.5p per mile. These new levies will apply alongside other motoring taxes that EVs are also now required to pay.

This is the UK’s first major step towards replacing declining fuel-duty revenues, which have fallen as more drivers move from petrol and diesel vehicles to electric alternatives. The pay-per-mile tax is expected to raise more than £1 billion in its first full year.

These charges don’t mean that the government is cooling on EVs, however. Some sweeteners still remain. An electric car grant (ECG), launched in July 2025, offers up to £3,750 off eligible new electric vehicles and is aimed at keeping the transition to cleaner transport affordable for consumers.

But critics argue that introducing running-cost charges risk slowing EV uptake at a time when the government is still trying to accelerate the shift away from fossil-fuel vehicles.

And industry experts are warning that discounts of up to £11,000 per vehicle offered by carmakers to boost demand are not sustainable. At the same time, industry groups warn that higher operating costs could also reduce demand, particularly for price-sensitive customers.

The shift signals a maturing phase for the UK’s EV market: incentives remain, but the era of untaxed electric motoring is drawing to a close. So what could it mean for sales – and is it a good time for drivers to make the change? Here’s what 2026 might have in store for the EV market.

1. Prospective buyers are likely to hold back

The demand for EVs is likely to be affected in the short run. Forecasts from the independent Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) suggest that nearly 440,000 fewer EVs will be sold by 2031 because of the new charge. However, 320,000 of these are expected to be offset by increased sales due to other measures in the budget (an increase to the threshold for the “luxury car tax” for EVs, for instance, and widening the electric car grant).

To put that into perspective, nearly 1.95 million new cars were sold in 2024 in the UK. Battery-powered EVs accounted for one in five of these new sales and, together with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), they exceeded 40% of the market share. The secondhand market is likely to feel the impact as well: with overall ownership costs rising, demand for used EVs may weaken alongside new-car sales.

2. Less confidence in EV ownership costs

Prospective buyers are likely to scrutinise the long-term costs of EV ownership, as the new system introduces more uncertainty. There will inevitably be questions: what happens if the per-mile charge increases from 3p to 4p, or if inflation pushes these rates higher? This unpredictability around future running costs could dampen consumer confidence, particularly among buyers who are already cautious about making the switch to a still-evolving technology.

3. Car producers will find it challenging

Carmakers are also likely to face challenges. The automotive industry is already investing heavily in factories, tooling and technology to support the shift to electric production.

Several manufacturers, including Jaguar, are planning to phase out internal combustion engines entirely. A sudden change in the policy environment could complicate these long-term commitments.

Some companies may scale back or delay investment in EV technologies if they anticipate weaker consumer demand, while others might double down – accelerating production, lowering costs through building more cars, and innovating more aggressively to keep electric models attractive despite the new charges their customers will face.

BMW, for example, is expected to introduce several new EV models over the next two years, with its new iX3 travelling more than 1,000 kilometres (621 miles) on a single charge recently. The leaders of Polestar and Volvo have no intentions of slowing down either as they strive to hold on to market share in the face of Chinese competition.

4. Commuters will feel most penalised

Commuters are likely to feel the greatest impact. For many people, lower living costs are a key reason for living outside major cities, and long daily journeys make fuel efficiency a central consideration. Drivers who planned to switch to EVs to reduce commuting costs may now feel penalised for living further from their workplaces. Every extra mile will add to their running costs under the new system.

5. Impact on other sustainability initiatives

The new charge also highlights a broader reality: sustainability subsidies are rarely permanent. The closure of the feed-in tariff scheme for solar power in 2019 is a recent example. But although there were warnings against its removal, solar adoption actually continued to rise. A similar dynamic could play out in other areas of clean technology.

6. EV prices are likely to go down

There is a potential silver lining for buyers – the pay-per-mile policy could indirectly bring down EV prices. With projected demand dropping, manufacturers may feel pressure to reduce margins to attract customers. Some Chinese carmakers operating in the UK have already introduced additional incentives to offset the impact of the new charges. This could signal that competitive pricing strategies will intensify in response to the policy.

The risk of the new charge is that it creates the impression that sustainability incentives are not only being withdrawn but replaced with new costs for drivers switching to cleaner vehicles. This may make petrol cars seem like a lower-risk option for would-be EV buyers. But over time, falling EV prices, improved battery efficiency and lower operating costs compared with traditional vehicles are still expected to make the transition economically compelling.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. What will 2026 look like for the UK’s electric vehicle market? – https://theconversation.com/what-will-2026-look-like-for-the-uks-electric-vehicle-market-271441

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Sarah Earle, Professor of Social Science, School of Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent University

Until relatively recently, children and young people with life-shortening conditions were not expected to survive into adulthood.

Conditions such as cancer, cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy were widely understood, particularly in the late 20th century and early 2000s, as diagnoses that would likely result in death during childhood or adolescence. Today, there are more than 400 recognised life-shortening conditions, and many infants and children with these diagnoses still do not reach adulthood.

However, advances in medical treatment, specialist care and assistive technologies have begun to change this picture. Increasing numbers of children and young people with life-shortening conditions are now living into adulthood, sometimes well beyond what clinicians and families were originally told to expect.

Although most young adults with these conditions still face shorter lives, increased life expectancy has made new aspects of social and family life possible. This includes the opportunity to think about sexual relationships, intimacy and reproduction.

For the past 15 years, I have worked with colleagues in the Sexuality Alliance, which advocates for the sexual and reproductive rights of disabled young people living with life-shortening conditions.

Our research, which was co-produced with disabled young people, shows that many feel unsupported and overlooked when it comes to their sexual and reproductive lives. Families and carers often report feeling unprepared.

In many cases, they had been told that their child would die, only to find that they were continuing to live, becoming teenagers and then adults. Professional staff, including nurses, doctors and therapists, were often unaware of these issues or felt anxious about addressing them.

The risk of death remains a constant presence in the lives of young adults with life-shortening conditions. Uncertainty shapes everyday experience, but it is not always at the forefront of how young people understand themselves.

The young people we interviewed told us that they want to live life to the full, and that this includes exploring sexual intimacy and forming romantic relationships. They described this as a normal part of growing up, and many saw it as a rite of passage. They also explained how important intimacy can be for both physical and emotional wellbeing.

One participant said that being in a relationship gave him a reason to live. Another said it helped him stay healthy by reducing loneliness and depression. For many participants, taking part in our research was the first time they had ever been able to talk openly about this part of their lives.

Addressing the sexual and reproductive citizenship of disabled young people who were not expected to live into adulthood is sensitive work because it confronts longstanding taboos around sexuality, youth and death. Disabled people frequently reported feeling marginalised, infantilised and treated as asexual. Many participants felt they were seen primarily as vulnerable rather than as people with desires, agency and rights.

They also told us that safeguarding practices, which are intended to protect vulnerable people and the organisations that support them, could sometimes unintentionally reinforce silence. Many had little or no access to sex education.

One young person explained that she had been removed from sex education at school. This was not only because she was expected to die, but also because staff believed the topic might distress her or be inappropriate. The result was the same: exclusion from information that her peers received.

Families, carers and professionals are well placed to support young people in realising their sexual and reproductive citizenship, but many report lacking the training or confidence to do so. A starting point is to challenge everyday disablist assumptions that presume disabled people cannot, should not, or do not want to have sex or children.

As part of our work, we co-produced resources to help young people and carers talk openly about sex and intimacy.

These resources encourage carers to reflect on their own attitudes and beliefs. They also provide a clear legal overview of issues such as consent and mental capacity, helping professionals feel more confident. Young people are supported to understand their rights and responsibilities, and to develop the skills needed for honest conversations about their sexual and reproductive wishes.

Despite the risks and uncertainties they face, many young people see intimacy and relationships as central to their wellbeing and identity. This work highlights the need to challenge disablist assumptions, improve access to inclusive sex education, and equip carers and professionals with the tools to support young people in realising their sexual and reproductive rights.

Sarah Earle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why disabled young people with life-shortening conditions need better support for intimacy – https://theconversation.com/why-disabled-young-people-with-life-shortening-conditions-need-better-support-for-intimacy-271263

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Dipa Kamdar, Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy Practice, Kingston University

Menopause is often described as “the change”, but for millions of women worldwide it is more than a biological milestone. It is a cultural, social and medical turning point. While most women experience menopause, their journeys are not the same. Ethnicity, culture and access to healthcare shape how symptoms are felt, understood and treated. These differences are rarely acknowledged, leaving many women invisible in public conversations about midlife health.

Menopause marks the end of reproductive years and is defined clinically as 12 months after the final menstrual period. Natural menopause usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55, with the average age in the UK being 51. The transition that leads up to it, known as perimenopause, can last several years and is characterised by fluctuating hormone levels, particularly oestrogen.

Up to 80 percent of women develop symptoms linked to falling levels of oestrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Researchers have identified more than 40 possible symptoms. Because oestrogen acts on receptors throughout the body, its loss is associated with increased risks of long-term health issues such as osteoporosis, heart disease, diabetes and mood disorders.

Symptoms vary widely. Hot flushes, night sweats and sleep disturbances are common, as are mood changes, joint pain, vaginal dryness and reduced libido. Symptoms can last an average of seven years. Although these effects are widespread, their intensity and meaning differ across cultures. Research including the The Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation and further work by the British Menopause Society highlights notable variations in how menopause is experienced. There appear to be some differences in hormonal patterns across ethnic groups, although more research is needed to understand why symptoms differ.

Women of African and Caribbean descent tend to experience more severe and longer-lasting vasomotor symptoms, including hot flushes and night sweats. Sleep problems, mental health issues and weight gain are also reported more often. Cultural expectations and stigma can make open discussion difficult, leaving many women without appropriate support.

Women of South Asian descent (India, Pakistan and neighbouring regions) tend to reach menopause earlier, with average ages around 46 to 47 years compared with 51 in western populations. Earlier menopause increases the risk of long-term health conditions such as heart disease. South Asian women also report more urogenital symptoms, such as vaginal dryness, urinary issues and reduced libido. However, conversation about sexual health is often limited due to cultural norms.

Women of East Asian descent (China, Japan and others) often report fewer hot flushes but more musculoskeletal pain, forgetfulness and low libido. In many East Asian cultures, menopause is viewed as a natural stage of ageing, which reduces the likelihood of seeking medical support.

Women of White European heritage report vasomotor symptoms more frequently than East Asian women, but often with less intensity than those experienced by African and Caribbean women. Although access to healthcare is generally greater, inequalities still affect diagnosis and treatment.

Across many minority communities, social stigma and cultural silence remain significant barriers. In some cultures, menopause is associated with loss of femininity or fertility, discouraging women from discussing symptoms. In others it is viewed as a natural process that does not require medical input. Some women prefer natural approaches to symptom management, often due to cultural beliefs or limited trust in medical interventions.

Practical barriers make access to care even more difficult. Language barriers can prevent effective communication with clinicians. Health literacy gaps mean many women are unaware of options such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Educational materials often lack representation, with leaflets failing to depict women from diverse backgrounds. Many women report feeling dismissed when seeking help. Socioeconomic inequalities including lower income and limited access to healthcare further widen gaps in symptom management and long-term health outcomes. These issues are compounded by mistrust of the healthcare system, often rooted in historical and ongoing inequities.

For the first time, women aged 40 to 74 attending NHS health checks will now be asked about menopausal symptoms. By embedding menopause into routine checks, policymakers hope to normalise discussion, improve diagnosis and ensure that all women receive appropriate support. However, the benefits may not be evenly distributed. Evidence shows that some women from ethnically minoritised communities are less likely to access these health checks, particularly those who already face barriers to recognition and treatment. If uptake remains unequal, the policy may unintentionally reinforce disparities rather than address them. The challenge for the NHS will be to adapt outreach and service delivery so that menopause support reaches the women who need it most.

Addressing these inequalities requires culturally sensitive healthcare. Information needs to be available in multiple languages and formats, including clear explanations of symptoms, consequences and treatment options, both hormonal and non hormonal. Healthcare professionals must be trained to recognise cultural differences in how symptoms are described and interpreted. Women also need safe spaces to discuss their experiences without judgement.

Menopause is not only a phase of symptom management. It is a critical stage for long-term health. Menopause is universal, but its experience is not. Biological variation, cultural norms and systemic inequalities shape how women navigate this transition. Recognising these differences is essential for building equitable healthcare that supports all women, regardless of ethnicity or culture, through one of life’s most significant milestones.

Dipa Kamdar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. The menopause gap: why some women suffer more and get less care – https://theconversation.com/the-menopause-gap-why-some-women-suffer-more-and-get-less-care-272753

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Stuart Salmon, Tutor in History, University of Stirling; University of Edinburgh

Any discussion of films and TV series about the American revolution has to start with a caveat. There have been historical movies for as long as there have been movies, but films and TV series about the great founding event of the US have been thin on the ground, certainly until the 21st century.

In 1917, an American director was even prosecuted for making Spirit of 76, a film about the revolution that criticised America’s new ally Great Britain. It wasn’t until 1985 that Hollywood tried a big budget retelling of the American revolution, with Revolution (1985).

Sadly the Al Pacino vehicle, while spectacular, had an incoherent storyline and was an unmistakable flop. It was another 15 years before Hollywood tried again with The Patriot (2000). The Patriot was more financially successful but arguably even less popular among the historical community (including myself).

Amid all these flops, however, a few gems emerged in a different medium – television. I’m a historian of the American revolution and these are my favourite ways the story has been told on TV.

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Read more:
During World War I, a silent film spoke volumes about freedom of speech

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1. Turn: Washington’s Spies (2014-17)

This four season AMC TV series stars Jamie Bell as patriot spy Abraham Woodhull, who was a leading figure George Washinton’s successful spy network, the Culper Ring. The series was based on the book Washington’s Spies by Alexander Rose (2006).

The series has 40 episodes, and each one is action packed. For me, it conjures up the secret war of the revolution brilliantly. The series explores some of the most intriguing characters of the war of independence, but most interesting for me was Ksenia Solo’s interpretation of Peggy Shippen, an American woman who spied for the British then married patriot hero Benedict Arnold and helped him defect to the British. This is a major plot line in the later seasons.

The series’ main villain was British officer John Graves Simcoe (Samuel Roukin), whose historical counterpart was a very different character to the one portrayed in the series. His memoir is one of the key primary sources for the British experience of the war of independence. I have been lucky enough to read Simcoe’s handwritten copy.

2. John Adams (2008)

This wonderful HBO miniseries stars Paul Giamatti and Laura Linney as John and Abigail Adams, the power couple of the American revolution. The series is based on the book John Adams by David McCullough (2001). Linney and Giamatti both won Emmy awards for the show and brilliantly portray their complex but likeable characters.

While John Adams is in the title, his wife Abigail has an equal role in the series. My favourite scene is where Abigail puts herself and her children in smallpox quarantine in revolutionary war Boston. This happened as shown and sheds light on the bizarre quarantine regime where people would sew small particles of smallpox spores into their skin and shut themselves away for at least two weeks in the hope of catching a lighter version of the disease but building immunity.

The series creates a great picture of two hugely influential figures in the American revolution and the history of the US. The couple arguably established many of the key features of the role of president and first lady. They wrote each other thousands of letters in their 54 year marriage but the most fascinating is Abigail’s letter to John on the eve of the Declaration of Independence (John played the key role in getting it passed by Congress). She urges John to “remember the ladies”. It is a hugely important early feminist document, which is now widely used as a teaching aid.

3. Franklin (2024)

This Apple TV+ miniseries is based on the book Dr Franklin Goes to France: How America Was Born in Monarchist Europe by Stacy Schiff (2005). It chronicles Benjamin Franklin’s attempts to get an alliance with France during the war of independence.

Directed by Tim Van Patten and featuring a strong performance by Michael Douglas in the titular role the series covers some of the same historical ground as John Adams. Both Adams (played by Eddie Marsan) and Franklin spent much of the revolutionary war in Europe attempting to secure alliances with the European powers.

This series is very entertaining and gives a warts and all picture of Franklin as a septuagenarian. For an account of the young Franklin, his autobiography is well worth a read and it also gives a great picture of life in colonial Pennsylvania.

4. Liberty! The American Revolution (1997)

If there was just one film or TV series that inspired me to study, write about and teach the American revolution, it was this six-part documentary. It reached me at exactly the right time – about a year before I began my final year undergraduate course on the American revolution.

The series contains contributions from some of the key historians of the American revolution, such as Pauline Maier, Gordon Wood and Bernard Bailyn. It also has readings of the words of participants on both sides of the American revolution by actors including a pre-fame Phillip Seymour Hoffman. The wide-ranging coverage spawned an excellent tie-in book.

While it did not neglect to show the diversity of the American revolution, more attention could have been paid the contributions of women, African Americans and Indigenous Americans. Historian Gary Nash’s book the Unknown American Revolution (2005) was one of key works in recognising this diversity. There have been other documentaries on the American revolution but it was this one which shaped the course of my career in history.

5. Hamilton (2021)

While technically a televised stage show (available to watch on Disney+), Hamilton is undoubtedly the most popular work of media with an American revolutionary theme. Drawing on Ron Chernow’s biography of the first US treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton, Lin Manuel Miranda’s hip-hop musical tells the tale of it’s eponymous founding father with amazing energy and humour.

I have been intrigued by the musical’s anti-hero/villain Aaron Burr since reading Gore Vidal’s novel Burr (1973) as a teenager and Leslie Odom Jr. does a wonderful job at bringing across the conflicted third vice president. Jonathan Groff, meanwhile, nearly steals the whole film as George III, despite only appearing for a few minutes.

The film covers the years 1776 to 1804 without seeming to miss many momentous events. While the best way to see Hamilton is live, until there is a big-budget film adaptation this is only way to enjoy the show with the original Broadway cast. Historically, it takes some liberties – Hamilton was not as enlightened on slavery as the musical suggests for example – but it gives a wonderful impression of the revolutionary era.

Do you have a favourite television show about the American Revolution that didn’t make our list? Let us know in the comments below.

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Stuart Salmon is affiliated with Universities and Colleges Union (UCU).

– ref. The five best TV shows about the American revolution – recommended by a historian – https://theconversation.com/the-five-best-tv-shows-about-the-american-revolution-recommended-by-a-historian-270612

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Adi Imsirovic, Lecturer in Energy Systems, University of Oxford

The capture of former Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro by the US intelligence services and armed forces has resulted in a frenzy of speculation about its consequences. But there is no doubt that the events were closely linked to the oil riches of the country. While the political situation in Venezuela remains fluid, there is far more certainty about its position as an oil producer.

For a start, Venezuela has one of the highest proven oil reserves in the world. The number frequently thrown around is 300 billion barrels, more than any other country, including Saudi Arabia.

But it’s important to be cautious about the numbers coming from the outside of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Statistics used within the OECD clearly distinguish between proved, probable, possible and contingent reserves and require consistency over time.

Proven reserves are defined as the oil in the ground that can be extracted economically, with the prevailing technology. It is a variable, not a constant – and the Venezuelan reserves estimate goes back to 2008.

As oil prices increase, the reserves increase too. This is because higher profits can justify the higher costs of extracting additional oil that would otherwise remain in the ground.

Initial production is usually easy due to the natural gas pressure of the well. Over time, this pressure falls and additional measures such as gas and water injection may have to be used – and these are expensive.

In 2008, the international oil prices approached US$140 (£104) a barrel. Currently, most of the Venezuelan oil sells at a US$25 discount to the Brent benchmark, at around US$35 a barrel. All other things being equal, the current proven oil reserves may be well below 100 billion barrels – less than a third of the figure that’s frequently cited.

The problem with Venezuela’s oil

Most Venezuelan oil is very heavy (tar-like) and contains a lot of sulphur. This makes production and transportation very expensive. Heavy oil needs to be diluted with naphtha (a liquid hydrocarbon) or gas oil first, and sulphur must be removed during the processing with expensive hydrogen.

Only very sophisticated refineries on the US Gulf Coast and some new refineries in India, the Middle East and China can process this kind of oil. It is no coincidence that Venezuelan oil is sold at huge discounts relative to other grades.

American oil companies started their activities in Venezuela almost a century ago, and by 1960s, the US was the largest foreign investor in the country. In line with most countries in the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (Opec), the Venezuelan oil industry was nationalised in 1971 and turned into the country’s oil monopoly, Petróleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA).

The Venezuelan oil industry then suffered from decades of political mismanagement, purges and US sanctions. Due to the lack of investment, production in the country has fallen from over three million barrels a day (mbd) in the early 2000s to below one mbd last year (see the graph below). This decline was particularly noticeable during the Maduro regime when the ruling party used PDVSA as a cash cow, investing little or nothing back into the industry.

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Read more:
What does international law tell us about the US seizure of an oil tanker off the coast of Venezuela?

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Due to the state of the oil sector, even a relatively small increase in oil production in Venezuela would require billions of dollars of investment. A significant increase would require years of massive funding – even with a stable political environment.

It is not clear that events in Venezuela will have any significant immediate impact on the global oil market. The initial reaction was for the oil price to fall. But the global oil market is oversupplied right now and even the total loss of Venezuelan exports (which is unlikely) would have only a minor impact on the prices.

The decline of Venezuelan oil production:

In the long term, the state of the industry can only improve (barring wars and civil strife). Additional barrels from Venezuela would only make life harder for Opec and other producers by making the oversupply worse. Indeed, oil prices tumbled again after US President Donald Trump vowed to seize up to 50 million barrels of Venezuelan oil.

Claims that the events would hurt China seem overblown. China (together with India) has been a major buyer of Venezuelan oil, but it represented no more than 5% of the volume of Chinese imports. Canada is another producer of heavy oil, and it has been shifting its exports from the US to China for some time. This trend is likely to continue.

Overall, there is little economic rationale for a “takeover” of the Venezuelan oil industry. If the US wanted Venezuelan oil, it could simply have lifted the sanctions imposed by Trump in 2019 and let their oil companies buy it, like everyone else.

It is the long-term political consequences of this legally dubious US action that are worrying the oil market. President Trump appears to have a growing appetite for military adventure which may include further attacks on Iran, a major oil-producing nation and a member of Opec.

Nobody is quite sure what Trump may do next, and the US action may also be used to legitimise Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. This had already rattled energy markets. The last thing the oil market needs right now is more uncertainty.

Adi Imsirovic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. What the US strike on Venezuela could mean for global oil prices – https://theconversation.com/what-the-us-strike-on-venezuela-could-mean-for-global-oil-prices-272858

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Thomas Allen, Senior Lecturer, Department of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University

Metamaterials – artificially made materials with properties that aren’t found in the natural world – are poised to transform daily life. Their unique properties are enhancing products from sporting goods to consumer electronics and beyond.

As a sports engineer and the person leading on health applications within the UKRI-funded UK Metamaterials Network, I have unique insights into how metamaterials are enhancing sporting goods.

Specifically, they are helping to make sport and exercise more accessible, inclusive, and safer.

Metamaterials are made with meta-atoms (Figure 1). These building blocks have a specific geometry that has been engineered to allow the material to perform specific functions and have particular properties. Their functions may be related to acoustics, chemistry, electromagnetism, magnetism, or the material’s mechanical properties.

Metamaterials and sport

Metamaterials sit between products and materials. They are not materials in the traditional sense because their design is intrinsically linked to that of the product they are used within to enhance performance.

The rapid-uptake, multibillion dollar sporting goods sector has relatively low barriers to market entry, making it an ideal space for testing new and emerging technologies.

As a result, it has been an early adopter of metamaterials, particularly mechanical metamaterials (Figure 2), as described in an Institution of Mechanical Engineers report on sports engineering.

Auxetic metamaterials have been widely explored and adopted within sporting goods. Auxetic behaviour is an example of a “negative property”, achievable with metamaterials (Figure 3). Materials with negative properties behave in the opposite way to conventional expectations. When we stretch a conventional material lengthwise, its cross section will contract.

Auxetic metamaterials behave in the opposite way, with their cross section expanding when we stretch them lengthwise. This unusual and counterintuitive behaviour can improve the performance of sporting goods. The property is described by something called Poisson’s ratio, which is a measure of the deformation in a material in response to the direction of loading (force).

Auxetic metamaterials can improve comfort, fit, and impact protection in products such as body protection and helmets. They exhibit synclastic curvature, meaning they form a “dome shape” when bent, which may improve the fit of helmets and knee pads, for example.

Their enhanced indentation resistance allows for more flexible body protection that can still protect against concentrated loads, such as from impacts with rocks and studs. Auxetics can also control unwanted vibrations, which is useful in equipment like bats, bikes, rackets, skis, and snowboards. Other examples of sporting goods featuring mechanical metamaterial geometries include airless basketballs, bike saddles, and footwear.

The potential for metamaterials extends beyond traditional sporting goods. They could help people with disabilities and injuries to play sport and exercise. Potential applications span braces, prosthetics, orthotics, and rehabilitation devices. Because such items are typically classed as medical devices, they are subject to more stringent regulations than sporting goods, posing challenges for the uptake of metamaterials.

Other types of metamaterials besides mechanical could bring benefits to the sport and exercise sector. This includes metamaterial-enhanced products that could actively adapt their properties to fit the movement pattern, shape, and size of the user. For these reasons, metamaterials have the potential to make sport and exercise products more inclusive for a diverse range of users.

Metamaterial research in the UK

Metamaterials are engineered to have extraordinary properties that make products smaller, lighter, simpler, and more powerful. On December 1, 2025, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers published a policy report on unlocking the potential of metamaterials. The report was produced in partnership with our UK Metamaterials Network. It offers a perspective on how we can harness metamaterials to drive innovation, strengthen industry and address global challenges.

That said, several challenges must be addressed for their full potential to be realised. First, the UK must continue doing fundamental research to remain globally competitive in this field. Second, adoption by industry is slow, highlighting the need to bridge research and commercialisation.

Third, metamaterial prototypes are often made using methods that are not well-suited for mass production, limiting their potential to be scaled up. Fourth, a skilled workforce is needed to develop and deploy these technologies effectively. Raising awareness, establishing shared definitions, and testing products featuring metamaterials against agreed standards are critical to drive adoption and foster public trust.

Challenges of metamaterials in sport

Appropriate standards and regulations in sport help designers, increase consumer confidence in products, and support international trade. Sports products must often comply with safety standards and rules set by sports governing bodies. There may even be value in having specific standards for metamaterials, offering unified definitions and test frameworks.

Manufacturing presents another challenge. Metamaterials used within sporting goods are typically made using established methods like 3D printing, machining, and injection moulding. Because the enhanced properties of metamaterials often rely on complex geometric arrangements, they can be costly and slow to mass produce. This highlights a need for efficient manufacturing methods.

Despite these challenges, metamaterials are becoming increasingly common in sporting goods. I have only highlighted a few in this article, but I would imagine that they will become even more commonplace in the future. Being able to tailor unique material properties to their function, as well as making them suited to specific individuals, makes metamaterials a powerful tool for sports engineers.

This is a really exciting time for metamaterials in the UK, and in the sports engineering sector, specifically. I am looking forward to seeing this specialised technology continue to make sport and exercise more accessible, inclusive, and safer.

Thomas Allen receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) as a co-investigator of the UK Metamaterials Network. He worked with HEAD Sport GmbH on auxetic composites for rackets and supervises a PhD student funded by Rheon Labs Ltd. He was an author of the IMechE reports on metamaterials and sports engineering.

– ref. ‘Metamaterials’ could transform our lives – and sports equipment is at the vanguard – https://theconversation.com/metamaterials-could-transform-our-lives-and-sports-equipment-is-at-the-vanguard-270840

Source: The Conversation – UK – By David L Collinson, Distinguished Professor of Leadership and Organisation, Lancaster University

Several high-profile political leaders have in recent months been seen apparently dabbling in Nazi allusions. In many cases, dog whistle messages send oblique signals to supporters. These are pitched at a frequency that most listeners can’t hear but are meaningful to those seeking confirmation of their own views.

When challenged, the people using these tactics often respond with strong and furious rebuttals. After emphasising their shock that they would be associated with Nazi imagery or ideas, they typically go on the offensive. They express indignation and moral outrage. Then, they demand an apology.

These hostile counterattacks often place their critics on the defensive. If the allusion to the Nazis becomes too obvious to deny, perpetrators typically claim they weren’t aware of the historical association and insist it was all an innocent mistake.

This is the dog whistle playbook: strategic ambiguity followed by belligerent counterattack, and then, if needed, plausible deniability.

Of the many recent cases of Nazi allusions, Elon Musk’s straight-arm salute – a gesture he performed twice at a rally celebrating Donald Trump’s second inauguration – is one of the most notorious.

Far from denying he’d made the gestures, Musk went on the attack dismissing criticisms as “pure propaganda”. He argued that critics in the Democratic party were conducting “ideological witchhunts” and needed “better dirty tricks” because Adolf Hitler references are “sooo tired”. Musk also made a series of Nazi-themed puns on social media.

One month later, Steve Bannon, Donald Trump’s one-time chief strategist and key figure in the Maga movement, also made a straight-arm salute at the conservative political action conference. Unlike Musk, Bannon denied any Nazi intent, describing the gesture as a “wave”. While Bannon was able to insist this wasn’t a Nazi salute, his critics’ outrage might have helped send a signal to Nazi sympathisers, reinforcing their loyalty and support.

Within the space of a few weeks in 2025, two senior figures in the Maga movement had been engulfed in controversies surrounding alleged Nazi salutes. For years, Trump has flirted with Nazi imagery, given comfort and even pardons to far-right extremists and been reluctant to criticise white supremacists. In November 2025 Trump reposted an AI-generated image of himself in front of what looked a lot like a Nazi eagle emblem (but without the swastika).

He has called political opponents “vermin” and argued that immigrants are “poisoning the blood of our country”. These words are associated with Hitler. Trump has also been quoted as saying “Hitler did some good things” and for asking US generals to be more like those of the Third Reich.

The dictator’s playbook

In Germany, dog whistles are a particularly sinister aspect of far-right politics, communicating coded signals that appear to convey a secret admiration for the Nazis. Such messages are often innocent enough to pass over the heads of the masses, yet iconic enough to resonate with others.

In 2024 Björn Höcke, one of the leading figures of the Alternative for Germany (AfD) party, was found guilty of knowingly using a Nazi slogan “Alles für Deutschland” at a rally. This slogan is forbidden under German law. It was the central slogan of the SA or Storm Troopers, Hitler’s paramilitary group from the Weimar years. Höcke insisted he was innocent because he was unaware of the Nazi links.

And if we reexamine Hitler’s own playbook, his speech to workers at the Siemens Dynamo Works factory in November 1933 never mentioned the word “Jews”. When Hitler talked of a “small rootless international clique” his supporters knew exactly to whom he was referring. Once Hitler had consolidated the power of the Nazis, this gave them, and many others, permission to vilify and scapegoat Jews more explicitly. In effect, the permission-giving facilitated the incremental usurpation of power.

While substantial differences clearly exist between the Third Reich and contemporary politics, there also seem to be disturbing overlaps. Rather than ensuring their messages could never be confused with Nazi references, some leaders seem comfortable using dog whistle signals and strategic ambiguity, hostile counterattacks and plausible deniability.

Some Nazi allusions might be viewed as innocent mistakes or as historical accident but their continued prevalence is starting to look like more than a coincidence.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How worried should we be that political leaders keep making oblique Nazi references? – https://theconversation.com/how-worried-should-we-be-that-political-leaders-keep-making-oblique-nazi-references-271893

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Andrew Charlton-Perez, Head of School of Mathematical, Physical and Computational Sciences and Professor of Meteorology, University of Reading

The review of the national curriculum and assessment in England has proposed three big sets of changes for climate education.

First, to prepare learners for a changing world, it suggests that climate education should be one of five big “applied knowledge areas”: key points of focus that cut across all subject disciplines within the curriculum.

Second, as part of making citizenship teaching compulsory for all key stages, it proposes that age-appropriate climate education should be part of primary teaching. Third, it proposes that climate education is expanded and modernised within specific subjects: geography, science and design and technology.

If implemented together, these changes would bring education in England closer to the comprehensive coverage of climate, sustainability and nature that many people in the sector, including ourselves, have long recommended. It would begin to align education in England with countries around the world, such as Lebanon and Argentina that are seeking to bring climate education into their curricula. Young people have also long been clear about their ambitions for climate education.

The review focuses on the school curriculum. But its effects would extend across the whole education system. What is taught in schools shapes the knowledge, skills and expectations that young people bring into further and higher education. The review will influence qualification design, teacher training and school inspection priorities.

The response to the review has, however, been mixed. Laura Trott, shadow education secretary, has said that “forcing primary schools to use precious time to teach deprived pupils about media literacy and climate change before ensuring that they can read, write and add up is not going to encourage social mobility”.

At the other end of the spectrum, the Climate Majority Project expressed disappointment that the review framed climate as a technical or economic issue, “rather than the all-encompassing context shaping every young person’s future”.

Jobs for the future

The backdrop to the review’s proposals is the accelerating green transition and its impact on UK jobs and growth. Without improved climate education, school leavers in the UK are likely to remain at a significant disadvantage compared with their international peers.

In some countries, such as Sweden and Italy, education for sustainable development is a universal entitlement, meaning they’re better suited for the jobs of the green transition.

The case for climate education goes much further. It’s about preparing young people for the world they already inhabit: one increasingly shaped by climate change, biodiversity loss and limited resources. High-quality climate education helps learners make sense of these realities. It allows them to build critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Importantly, they can connect their learning to real-world purpose.

And far from detracting from core learning or social mobility, climate education deepens both. Global benchmarking systems such as Pisa, which compares education worldwide, increasingly recognise environmental literacy as an indicator of quality education.

The UK’s independent Climate Change Committee, which advises government on how to adapt and prepare for climate change as well as holding them accountable, has warned of the dangers of skills shortages. A lack of climate-related skills, the committee claims, are already constraining the country’s ability to prepare for and respond to climate change impacts. These include extreme weather, heatwaves and flooding.

Ensuring that all young people develop strong climate and nature literacy will therefore be essential for both personal resilience and national prosperity. This matters for every learner, regardless of whether they enter an explicitly “green” profession. All jobs and sectors will need to adapt.

There’s work to be done, though, in making the recommended changes a reality in schools. Luckily, there is already a substantial body of work showing how the curriculum could be changed.

Student campaign organisation Teach the Future has carried out a project that systematically reviews the existing English national curriculum. It suggests precise edits to embed climate and ecological education throughout. Sustainability, climate science and ecological justice are integrated into existing subjects, rather than treated as optional extras.

Alongside that sits the curriculum for climate literacy developed by the Royal Meteorological Society. University College London has also put together a detailed policy proposal. Together, these documents provide a robust foundation for the teams appointed to draft the new curriculum.

Curriculum change is much more than a framework for particular subjects. These changes will only make a genuine difference to learners, schools and society when every teacher has access to high-quality professional development and teaching resources. Consistent sector-wide standards should ensure that all young people benefit.

The curriculum review gives the education system in England a clear opportunity. Climate should be part of a high-quality education system.

Andrew Charlton-Perez receives funding from the Department for Education. He is affiliated, in a personal capacity, with the Labour party as a member and campaigner.

Charlotte works for the Environmental Association for Universities and Colleges (EAUC), who are recipients of Department for Education funding to support the delivery of the Climate Ambassadors project. In a personal rather than professional capacity, she is affiliated with the Green Party.

– ref. Climate education proposals will prepare young people in England for changing careers and society – https://theconversation.com/climate-education-proposals-will-prepare-young-people-in-england-for-changing-careers-and-society-270733