Robert Munsch has prepared for the eventual end of his story, but his letters and books keep speaking

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Erin Spring, Associate Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary

In April 1996, I was 11 years old. I wrote letters to authors on the topic of “becoming a writer,” enclosing a short questionnaire. To my astonishment, over 40 authors responded — some on letterhead, some on lined paper, some with doodles and stickers.

One author who wrote me back was the beloved Canadian children’s author Robert Munsch. His stories, including Mortimer, Thomas’ Snowsuit and Love You Forever, have sold more than 87 million copies, been translated into dozens of languages and are staples in classrooms, homes and libraries worldwide.

In mid-September, a Munsch profile appeared in the New York Times outlining how dementia has affected the author’s life, and his decision to elect medically assisted death (MAiD) when the time comes.

While Munsch’s daughter has said he is “NOT DYING!!!” and doing well, the recent coverage has reignited national conversations about dignity, decline and ethical questions raised by MAiD.

Munsch’s letter-writing opens journalist Katie Engelhart’s New York Times Magazine piece. She notes that when Munsch received many letters from a class, he’d reply with a single letter, often with an unpublished story that included real names of some students. But when children wrote on their own, Munsch always responded.

According to Scholastic, one of his publishers, Munsch receives about 10,000 letters a year.

How stories shape who we become

I’ve carried Munsch’s letter, and other author letters, with me for almost three decades. They now live in a shoebox on my office window sill — a reminder that the child who wrote them still lingers nearby.

I see now that in writing to the authors I admired, I was beginning to understand how stories can shape a sense of self — how young people make sense of their identities through reading.

In my research, I’ve examined how reading is a powerful tool for exploring and building identity, belonging and community. I’ve engaged with youth across urban and rural settings and those living on reserve. I’ve always found young people to be the most reliable, compelling narrators of their own stories.

Too often, both scholars and popular narratives get caught in unhelpful binaries — adult versus child, innocent versus knowing — that flatten the richness of children’s lives, positioning them as somehow incomplete. I’m more interested in what happens when we think of adults and children as akin: different, yes, but connected.

All these years later, I’m returning to Munsch’s letter, not just as a material remnant of my childhood, but as evidence of what’s possible when an author takes their child-reader seriously.

Literacy is a relationship

Literacy is not only a skill but a relationship, nurtured through moments of attention, dialogue and care. And here is where Munsch is masterful. His career has been an extended epistolary experiment in listening and taking children seriously.

I talk to kids, and I listen to kids,” he explains on his website. Munsch improvised stories in front of children, shifting in response to their laughter or protest. He drew inspiration directly from them.

“My stories have no adult morals. They’re not to improve children. They’re just for kids to like,” he shared on CBC radio in 2021.

Munsch also writes honestly on his website about his background — how he was “not a resounding academic success.” He writes openly about his mental-health challenges, encouraging parents to have brave conversations with their children.

It’s no surprise, then, that Munsch has openly shared his most recent struggle with dementia, prompting readers across the ages to share memories of how his stories have shaped their lives.

Small exchanges matter tremendously

At a time when debates about reading for pleasure and children’s creativity are making headlines, these small exchanges matter tremendously.

Recent Canadian data suggest both promise and concern. According to Scholastic’s Kids and Family Reading Report, 91 per cent of children aged 6 to 17, and 97 per cent of parents, agree that being a reader is essential. Yet the same report shows that children’s enjoyment of reading declines sharply with age, and that many struggle to connect with books.

CBC video of Robert Munsch telling the story of ‘The Paperbag Princess.’

The National Literacy Alliance has warned that one in five Canadian adults still face serious reading challenges, calling for a national strategy. Data from the United Kingdom’s National Literacy Trust reports similar findings.

In response to declining rates in reading for pleasure, the Booker Prize has launched a new award for children’s fiction, with young people on its adjudication board.

Hearing children, fully

Munsch understood children as whole people decades ago. Not only is he honest, but he makes it clear that hearing from children matters. He wrote to me:

“I loved your letter. My publisher says to me, ‘Wow! We sold 1,000,000 of Love You Forever; but that does not tell me what any one person thought of it or where any one person lives who read it. In fact, the publisher does not know that sort of thing at all; but letters tell me what is really happening with my books.”

Briefly, 11-year-old me, a young girl from rural Ontario, was that one person.

“I live in Guelph,” Munsch described to me. “It is surrounded by farms. My house is next to a hill. I have an office in the basement.”

It reads like a letter between friends.

One reader, one writer

When Engelhart’s article appeared, I pulled out my shoebox, noticing that Munsch ends his letter with a question: “Which book is your favourite?”

I had missed it at the time.

His response to my letter project was also a gesture of kinship. Munsch’s question placed the power in my hands, inviting child-me back into the conversation. I wish I had taken him up on it.

Long before “reading crises” made headlines, Munsch understood that stories are relational. His 1996 letter to me, written in the same voice that filled classrooms with laughter, embodied that belief.

In responding, he modelled what literacy can look like at its most human scale: one reader, one writer and a story shared between them.

The stories we carry

Now, as his voice begins to recede, those exchanges take on new weight.

Contemplating Munsch’s end of life invites broader reflection for Canadian cultural memory. Children’s literature often counts for less in national literary canons, but it carries enormous weight — because generational reading connects us.

What happens when a central figure of that literature fades? How do we preserve not just the texts, but the relational echoes around them?

When Munsch asked me which book was my favourite, he was really asking what story I would carry forward. Three decades later, I’m belatedly responding: it’s the letter itself — the conversation, the recognition, the trust.

I carry my shoebox wherever I go. Inside it lives a child’s curiosity, the kindness of authors and the reminder that the relations we nurture through stories shape identity in quiet, enduring ways.

The Conversation

Erin Spring does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Robert Munsch has prepared for the eventual end of his story, but his letters and books keep speaking – https://theconversation.com/robert-munsch-has-prepared-for-the-eventual-end-of-his-story-but-his-letters-and-books-keep-speaking-267280

Congress has been dodging responsibility for tariffs for decades – now the Supreme Court will decide how far presidents can go alone

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Bedassa Tadesse, Professor of Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth

On Nov. 5, the U.S. Supreme Court will hear one of the most consequential trade cases in decades. The justices will decide whether a president can rely on a Cold War–era emergency law, the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, to impose sweeping import duties on a vast share of what the United States buys from abroad.

At stake is more than the scope of presidential power. The case highlights a deeper question of accountability: Who should decide what Americans pay for imported goods – the president acting alone, unelected judges reading emergency laws broadly, or the elected representatives who must face voters when prices rise?

When tariffs end up in court, it’s usually because Congress has failed to act. Over the past few decades, lawmakers have ceded much of their trade authority to presidents eager to move quickly – and the courts have been left to clean up the mess. Each new lawsuit makes it seem as though judges are running the economy when, in fact, they’re being pulled into policy questions they’re neither trained nor elected to answer.

As an economist, not a lawyer, I view this as more than a constitutional curiosity. It’s about how the world’s largest economy makes decisions that ripple through global markets, factory floors and family budgets. A duty on steel may help a mill in Ohio while raising bridge-construction and car-buying costs everywhere else. A tariff on electronics might nudge assembly onshore yet squeeze hospital and school budgets that depend on those devices.

These are choices about distribution – who gains, who pays, and for how long – that demand analysis, transparency and, above all, democratic ownership.

How did the US get here?

Congress didn’t exactly lose its tariff power; it gave it away.

The Constitution assigns “Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises” to Congress, not the White House. Historically, Congress set tariff lines in law – consider the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930. The pivot began with the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act of 1934, which let presidents adjust rates within limits via executive agreements. In the 1960s and ’70s, Congress passed laws expanding the president’s authority over trade, granting new powers to restrict or adjust imports without a separate congressional vote if certain conditions are met.

In my view, two key incentives drove the drift: blame avoidance and gridlock. Tariffs are redistributive by design: They benefit some sectors and regions while imposing costs on others. Casting a vote that helps steelworkers in one state but raises prices for builders in another is politically risky. Delegating to the White House allowed lawmakers to sidestep the fallout when prices rise or when jobs shift.

And as polarization intensified, the bargaining that once produced workable compromises became increasingly complex. Broad emergency statutes and open-ended delegations became the path of least resistance – fast, unilateral and insulated from negotiation. Over time, exceptions became the norm, and courts were tasked with resolving the gray areas.

That’s a poor way to run economic policy.

Judges interpret statutes and precedent; they don’t run general equilibrium models, forecast inflation paths or map supply chain rerouting. Evidence in court is confined to a single case file. Remedies are blunt: They are either to uphold, strike down or send back. Tariff design, by contrast, is about calibration: how high, how long, which sectors, which exclusions, what off-ramps, what triggers for renewal or repeal.

When lawsuits substitute for legislation, countries drift into policy by injunction. Companies see rules whipsaw; projects are delayed or shelved; households experience price swings that feel arbitrary; trading partners retaliate against policies they see as improvisational.

A matter of accountability

Accountability sits at the center of the problem. Most judges aren’t elected; lawmakers are. Lifetime tenure protects judicial independence – good for rights, bad for setting taxes. No one can vote out a court when tariffs push up the price of a school Chromebook or a contractor’s rebar.

Members of Congress, by contrast, must explain themselves. They can hold hearings, commission impact analyses, hear from unions and small businesses, and then defend the trade-offs. If tariffs save jobs in one town but raise prices nationwide, voters know exactly whom to reward or punish. That democratic link is why the Constitution places “Duties and Imposts” in the hands of Congress.

None of this means paralysis when it comes to trade policy. The United States has done this before – via trade-promotion and fast-track authorities that set clear goals and required renewal votes – while the EU and Japan have paired swift action with built-in legislative oversight.

Congress can be nimble without being reckless. Best practices for tariffs include setting clear targets using accessible language, having independent analysts conduct reviews before and after a tariff is put in place, and having diplomacy baked into a broader trade-security strategy that reports retaliation risks.

The challenge facing the court

In my view, the Supreme Court’s role here is both modest and vital: to enforce the statute and the constitutional line.

If a general emergency law doesn’t clearly authorize sweeping, long-duration tariffs, it’s not activism to say so plainly. It’s boundary-keeping that returns the pen to Congress. What I think the court should avoid is appearing to write the tariff code from the bench. That swaps democratic ownership for judicial improvisation and guarantees more litigation as a strategy.

In theory, a more public, accountable system would also free everyone to focus on what they do best. That means economists measuring who gains and who pays, lawmakers weighing trade-offs and answering to voters, and courts enforcing the rules – not designing the policy.

The Conversation

Bedassa Tadesse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Congress has been dodging responsibility for tariffs for decades – now the Supreme Court will decide how far presidents can go alone – https://theconversation.com/congress-has-been-dodging-responsibility-for-tariffs-for-decades-now-the-supreme-court-will-decide-how-far-presidents-can-go-alone-268555

The CSA’s revised standard on respirators should help us all breathe easier

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Dick Zoutman, Professor Emeritus, School of Medicine, Queen’s University, Ontario

The CSA Group — a not-for-profit standards organization — released for review a new draft standard on the “Selection, Use, and Care of Respirators” (CSA Z94.4:25) for workplaces, specifically including health care. This new standard is designed to ensure much better protection for health-care workers and for everyone seeking health care.

We live insulated from many dangers because of public measures that protect us from things like contaminated food, shoddy construction, unsafe workplaces and other risks that escalate when producers and employers cut corners that take risks with our safety.

We’re also better protected because of occupational health and safety legislation coupled with standardized safety equipment. Rear-view mirrors? The first cars didn’t have those — now we take them for granted. Like a rear-view mirror, a respirator is a simple device that makes both users and those around them safer.

CSA Group is an independent not-for-profit standards organization with international accreditation, including from the Standards Council or Canada. Since it was founded 1919 as the Canadian Engineering Standards Association, it has helped keep Canadians safer by establishing standards for many products, including safety equipment.

Since the 1980s, it has had a standard for particulate respirators. Canada led the way on safety then, and the new draft CSA respirator standard ensures that Canada is continuing to lead.

The science on respirators

Respirators, a specialized type of mask, are designed to seal against the face so that they effectively filter the air for wearers. They’re made from charged fibres in multiple layers, trapping dangerous particles before they reach the wearer.

Respirators have long been considered essential in many workplaces. Asbestos and paint particles, for instance, should never be inhaled into the lungs. Similarly, health-care workers and patients should not inhale airborne bacteria or viruses. Measles, influenza, COVID, tuberculosis and other pathogens can float in the air, carried inside tiny aerosolized particles that we all produce when we breathe, speak, cough or sneeze.

The evaluation of respirator effectiveness in health care has been intense, especially over years of the COVID-19 pandemic. There have also been significant technical improvements in their design for improved efficacy and comfort. A recent review and meta-analysis that one of us worked on examined more than 400 papers and concluded that respirators significantly reduce transmission.

The draft of the New CSA Standard

Standards are the backbone of public safety. Regular updating of standards ensures that, when science or technology advance, our systems can adapt in a structured, clear and enforceable manner. With the evidence supporting respirator use against airborne disease transmission, particularly for COVID-19, it was time for the CSA to update its respirator standard.

The importance of protecting workers and patients in health-care settings is reflected in the new standard. For the first time ever, it includes an entire section dedicated to health care where pathogen exposure is much more likely — and more likely to cause further spread. As the CSA notes, health care is of particular concern because of the number of health-care workers and the knock-on effects of pathogen spread on “the general population.”

The new edition has been in development by experts from across disciplines for more than two years. The draft — which was removed from CSA Group’s website at the end of the public review period — makes a number of key changes.

It uses a robust, layered approach that incorporates two fundamental concepts in safety: “the hierarchy of controls” and “the precautionary principle.” The first creates a structure for considering all of the different ways that safety can be improved, while the second requires taking steps for safety even in situations where the science is not yet clear (as recommended by the SARS Commission) — in other words, “better safe than sorry.”

For health-care workplaces, important changes include:

● By default the use of respirators by health-care providers throughout the health-care facility is required unless a detailed risk assessment by qualified experts deems a space exempt due to engineered risk reduction (such as displacement ventilation, upper air germicidal ultraviolet radiation, etc.).

● A minimum requirement for Protection Level 1 respirators (for example, CA-N95, NIOSH N95), which provide respiratory protection to the wearer.

● Providing various styles and sizes of respirators for free that meet user comfort, fit and breathability needs, fit testing, training and promoting sustainability, such as through reusable and/or plant-based materials. New designs for respirators make wearing them for long periods much more comfortable due to greater breathability.

The draft CSA respirator standard is evidence-based and necessary to bring workplace protections up to date with science for the benefit of all Canadians, including health-care workers and patients. Expressing concern for safety is not enough to make it happen; the new standard must be accepted into practice, and the relevant provincial and federal health and safety regulations updated to require its adoption.

The Conversation

Dick Zoutman is on the Board of The Canadian COVID Society and serves as an advisor to the Coalition for Community and Healthcare Acquired Infection Reduction.

Julia M. Wright is an uncompensated member of the Board for the Canadian Lung Association. She currently holds an Insight Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for unrelated research on literature.

Mark Ungrin is an uncompensated volunteer advisor to the Canadian COVID Society and Co-chair of its Legal Committee, and collaborates with the Canadian Aerosol Transmission Coalition. His has received funding from NSERC, SSHRC and CIHR for research in the areas of tissue engineering and synthetic biology that includes relevant biosafety and biosecurity considerations.

Ryan Tennant is an uncompensated volunteer with Ontario School Safety and COVID-19 Resources Canada. He currently holds a Canada Graduate Scholarship from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for unrelated research on paediatric sepsis prediction technologies.

ref. The CSA’s revised standard on respirators should help us all breathe easier – https://theconversation.com/the-csas-revised-standard-on-respirators-should-help-us-all-breathe-easier-265048

The planet wants you to eat more offal – here’s how to increase consumption

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Tennessee Randall, PhD Candidate in Social Psychology, Swansea University

Many people in the UK are not keen to eat offal, but there’s an environmental movement that suggests eating the whole animal has benefits. Scout901/Shutterstock

Meat has a large environmental impact, but could consuming more of it be part of the answer?

Meat-eaters in western countries today typically focus on the muscle tissue of animals and often avoid consuming offal (internal organs like the heart, liver and kidney). But eating more offal could lower the number of animals that are killed for food and so the greenhouse gases produced by the meat industry.

Offal also has potential health benefits. It’s packed with protein, vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids and often contains more nutrients than the meat that we would usually eat. For example, 100 grams of liver provides around 36% of your recommended daily iron but eating the same amount of minced meat would provide around 12%.

Offal was once a popular food choice in the UK during the second world war. In Japan, eating offal is motivated by cultural values such as mottainai, which describes a sense of regret around being wasteful. Similarly, “nose-to-tail” eating is becoming more popular in the UK, which is also based on principles around reducing food waste and respecting the animal’s sacrifice.

The nose-to-tail cooking movement is taking off.

Despite the potential health and environmental benefits, getting consumers to accept offal is more difficult than one might expect. Typically, people who haven’t tried offal are disgusted by the thought of eating it and often consider it to be contaminated. Others are put off because they just don’t know how to make a tasty meal that their children will also eat.

One way to overcome this is to use offal in a familiar meal with other ingredients. I explored this with other researchers in a recent study of 390 UK meat eaters. Specifically, we looked at their opinions of offal in its natural form and compared it to when offal (liver and kidney) was included as an ingredient within minced meat (for instance, “offal-enriched” mince).

We found the offal-enriched mince was considered more acceptable and was expected to be tastier, more satisfying, intriguing and easier to prepare than livers and kidneys. Although, livers and kidneys were expected to be more natural, have less fat and better for the environment than offal-enriched mince.

Men v women

When we compared these ratings across men and women, it was clear that men felt more positive about eating “pure” offal than women. Whereas men and women expressed similar opinions about eating offal within minced meat.

We also compared opinions across six different types of offal-enriched meals, which included a burger, curry, spaghetti bolognese, meatballs, shepherd’s pie and a stir fry. The spaghetti bolognese was a clear favourite for its expected taste, but people were equally curious to try the stir fry, which they also believed would be healthier and more natural than the other meals.

Consumers also answered questions on their personality type and motives for choosing food, which meant we could flesh out the psychology behind why some people are more open to trying offal-enriched meals than others.

On the plus side, it turns out that people who prioritise their health when choosing food think offal-enriched meals would be tastier and more intriguing. However, people who are fearful of eating new foods think the opposite. In psychology, this is known as “food neophobia” and has been linked with less healthier food choices in some populations. In our sample, women had higher food neophobia than men.

Tackling the stigma

There may also be some stigma around eating offal, as we found that people who were more likely to control how they were viewed by others formed more negative opinions of offal-enriched meals. This type of social interaction is known as “impression management” and has been shown to influence food choices.

Much of the offal produced in the UK is exported because the consumer demand is low. This means that offal is much cheaper than other meat cuts, such as a steak or a lamb’s leg. However, this could fuel misperceptions about the meat being a lower quality, or that it is chosen by those who cannot afford the expensive cuts.

In reality, eating more of the animal could support a healthy diet and could be a more achievable recommendation for sustainable eating, especially for the men who love their meat.


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The Conversation

Tennessee Randall receives funding from the Economic Social Research Council Wales Doctoral Training Partnership.

ref. The planet wants you to eat more offal – here’s how to increase consumption – https://theconversation.com/the-planet-wants-you-to-eat-more-offal-heres-how-to-increase-consumption-267051

Design and technology’s practical and creative skills should see it revived in the school curriculum

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Matt McLain, Senior Lecturer in Education and Professional Learning, Liverpool John Moores University

AnnaStills/Shutterstock

Studying design and technology (D&T) at school gives children the opportunity to get up from behind a desk and learn practical skills. It’s the only subject in the national curriculum in which children can develop and create tangible solutions to real problems.

They can get an insight into whether they might enjoy careers in design, fashion, engineering, technology or food. And they can learn skills that will be useful to them at home, in the workplace and in society.

D&T could play a crucial role in the government’s aim to revitalise the national curriculum in England, enrich children’s learning, and prepare young people for vocational education and training. The practical and hands-on approach children learn through D&T in primary and secondary schools can raise their awareness of vocational options and prepare them for technical and vocational education after their GCSEs, whether or not they chose an overtly D&T-related career pathway.

Once a thriving part of the national curriculum, D&T has suffered years of decline. The ongoing review of the national curriculum in England provides the ideal opportunity for national education policy to revive the value of practical and creative learning for its pupils.

D&T was a compulsory GCSE until 2004. It has since plummeted in popularity. The number of GCSE entries has shrunk in England from over 400,000 entries in 2004 to 137,016 in 2025. School funding has also decreased in real terms, affecting relatively expensive subjects such as D&T.

Graph of D&T GCSE entries
GCSE Design and Technology entries from 1996 to 2024.
Matt McLain, CC BY-NC-SA

The introduction of the English Baccalaureate (EBacc), which compares schools based on how many students take certain GCSEs, has added to this issue. The EBacc is weighted towards traditionally academic subjects: English, maths, the sciences, geography or history and a language. It incentivises schools to encourage students towards these subjects.

The knock-on effect of this has been the drastic reduction of curriculum time and budgets for more practical and creative subjects, such as D&T, in many secondary schools. This prioritisation of certain subjects over others may also affect how young people think about learning skills that prepare them for work in the creative and manufacturing industries.

Boy using sewing machine in class
Design and technology teaches young people practical skills.
BearFotos/Shutterstock

There also aren’t enough D&T teachers. Government census data for England shows that in 2024-25, just 618 D&T trainees were recruited – 39% of the target number. It was an even lower number the year before.

Bursaries for new teachers are also lower for D&T than for subjects such as chemistry, computing, mathematics and physics. This means graduates in Stem subjects – science, technology, engineering and maths – who would be good candidates to teach D&T may opt for science or maths instead. In 2018, the Department for Education excluded D&T from a list of what it considered Stem subjects.

Yet in a world facing rapid technological change, climate challenges and skills shortages, practical and creative subjects such as D&T are more vital than ever. England faces a critical skills gap in design, engineering and manufacturing. These are industries essential for growth.

The World Economic Forum’s 2025 Future of Jobs report outlines the core skills prioritised by employers. Many of these are promoted by D&T: they include creative thinking, technological literacy, quality control, and design and user experience.

Design and technology is not a nostalgic throwback or a soft alternative to academic rigour. It is a challenging and vital part of preparing young people for the future. As England faces economic, environmental and social challenges, we need a curriculum that equips students to think creatively, solve real-world problems and engage with technology meaningfully.

The final report of England’s review of school curriculum and assessment, due for publication this autumn, presents an opportunity for a renaissance in practical and creative learning, as well as a revaluing of experience alongside knowledge.

The Conversation

Matt McLain received funding from the Department for Education to draft the current subject content for GCSE and A Level design and technology. He is also a trustee for the Design and Technology Association, who support the teaching of the subject in schools.

ref. Design and technology’s practical and creative skills should see it revived in the school curriculum – https://theconversation.com/design-and-technologys-practical-and-creative-skills-should-see-it-revived-in-the-school-curriculum-266123

Why do some of us love AI, while others hate it? The answer is in how our brains perceive risk and trust

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Paul Jones, Associate Dean for Education and Student Experience at Aston Business School, Aston University

Kundra

From ChatGPT crafting emails, to AI systems recommending TV shows and even helping diagnose disease, the presence of machine intelligence in everyday life is no longer science fiction.

And yet, for all the promises of speed, accuracy and optimisation, there’s a lingering discomfort. Some people love using AI tools. Others feel anxious, suspicious, even betrayed by them. Why?

The answer isn’t just about how AI works. It’s about how we work. We don’t understand it, so we don’t trust it. Human beings are more likely to trust systems they understand. Traditional tools feel familiar: you turn a key, and a car starts. You press a button, and a lift arrives.

But many AI systems operate as black boxes: you type something in, and a decision appears. The logic in between is hidden. Psychologically, this is unnerving. We like to see cause and effect, and we like being able to interrogate decisions. When we can’t, we feel disempowered.

This is one reason for what’s called algorithm aversion. This is a term popularised by the marketing researcher Berkeley Dietvorst and colleagues, whose research showed that people often prefer flawed human judgement over algorithmic decision making, particularly after witnessing even a single algorithmic error.

We know, rationally, that AI systems don’t have emotions or agendas. But that doesn’t stop us from projecting them on to AI systems. When ChatGPT responds “too politely”, some users find it eerie. When a recommendation engine gets a little too accurate, it feels intrusive. We begin to suspect manipulation, even though the system has no self.

This is a form of anthropomorphism – that is, attributing humanlike intentions to nonhuman systems. Professors of communication Clifford Nass and Byron Reeves, along with others have demonstrated that we respond socially to machines, even knowing they’re not human.

We hate when AI gets it wrong

One curious finding from behavioural science is that we are often more forgiving of human error than machine error. When a human makes a mistake, we understand it. We might even empathise. But when an algorithm makes a mistake, especially if it was pitched as objective or data-driven, we feel betrayed.

This links to research on expectation violation, when our assumptions about how something “should” behave are disrupted. It causes discomfort and loss of trust. We trust machines to be logical and impartial. So when they fail, such as misclassifying an image, delivering biased outputs or recommending something wildly inappropriate, our reaction is sharper. We expected more.

The irony? Humans make flawed decisions all the time. But at least we can ask them “why?”

Students increasingly turn to AI chatbots to help them draft essays.
Teaching is among the professions where AI is replacing parts of their work.
BongkarnGraphic / Shutterstock

For some, AI isn’t just unfamiliar, it’s existentially unsettling. Teachers, writers, lawyers and designers are suddenly confronting tools that replicate parts of their work. This isn’t just about automation, it’s about what makes our skills valuable, and what it means to be human.

This can activate a form of identity threat, a concept explored by social psychologist Claude Steele and others. It describes the fear that one’s expertise or uniqueness is being diminished. The result? Resistance, defensiveness or outright dismissal of the technology. Distrust, in this case, is not a bug – it’s a psychological defence mechanism.

Craving emotional cues

Human trust is built on more than logic. We read tone, facial expressions, hesitation and eye contact. AI has none of these. It might be fluent, even charming. But it doesn’t reassure us the way another person can.

This is similar to the discomfort of the uncanny valley, a term coined by Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori to describe the eerie feeling when something is almost human, but not quite. It looks or sounds right, but something feels off. That emotional absence can be interpreted as coldness, or even deceit.

In a world full of deepfakes and algorithmic decisions, that missing emotional resonance becomes a problem. Not because the AI is doing anything wrong, but because we don’t know how to feel about it.

It’s important to say: not all suspicion of AI is irrational. Algorithms have been shown to reflect and reinforce bias, especially in areas like recruitment, policing and credit scoring. If you’ve been harmed or disadvantaged by data systems before, you’re not being paranoid, you’re being cautious.

This links to a broader psychological idea: learned distrust. When institutions or systems repeatedly fail certain groups, scepticism becomes not only reasonable, but protective.

Telling people to “trust the system” rarely works. Trust must be earned. That means designing AI tools that are transparent, interrogable and accountable. It means giving users agency, not just convenience. Psychologically, we trust what we understand, what we can question and what treats us with respect.

If we want AI to be accepted, it needs to feel less like a black box, and more like a conversation we’re invited to join.

The Conversation

Paul Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Why do some of us love AI, while others hate it? The answer is in how our brains perceive risk and trust – https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-of-us-love-ai-while-others-hate-it-the-answer-is-in-how-our-brains-perceive-risk-and-trust-268588

Involving women in peace deals reduces chance of a conflict restarting by up to 37%

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Giuditta Fontana, Associate Professor in International Security, University of Birmingham

Twenty-five years ago, on October 31, 2000, the United Nations unanimously adopted its landmark security council resolution 1325 (WPS 1325). The resolution on women, peace and security reaffirmed “the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, peace negotiations, peace-building, peacekeeping, humanitarian response and in post-conflict reconstruction”. It also stressed the “importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security”.

The significance of women to building sustainable peace is undeniable. Our research, supported by the United States Institute of Peace, has found that on average the incorporation of measures to include women in post-conflict society in a peace agreement reduces the probability of conflict recurrence by 11%. Even more significantly, if this process occurs alongside UN leadership, the probability of conflict recurrence is reduced by 37%.

So the anniversary of WPS 1325 should be a reason to celebrate. Instead, the UN secretary general, António Guterres, opened his report to the security council’s annual debate on women, peace and security on October 6 with a warning. Guterres said the UN too often “falls short when it comes to real change in the lives of women and girls caught in conflict”. He specifically noted the lack of inclusion of women in peace negotiations, the failure to protect women and girls from sexual violence, and the underfunding of women peacebuilders.

Over the past 25 years, the security council has adopted almost 1,000 resolutions related to WPS 1325. In 2015, resolution 2242 aimed for the more systematic integration of the women, peace and security agenda into “all country-specific situations on the security council’s agenda”. To facilitate this, the UN security council set up an informal group of experts.

There is no doubt that the women, peace and security agenda has had a positive impact. Guterres noted that “gender provisions in peace agreements have become more common, and women’s organisations have helped transform post-conflict recovery and reconciliation in communities worldwide”. He declared that “women-led civil society and women peace builders … are the drivers behind holistic and sustainable peace.”

Yet according to a UN Women survey in early 2025, global cuts to foreign aid budgets make it harder for women to make these vital contributions to peace and security.

The situation is similarly challenging for UN peacekeeping. The cumulative budget shortfall in mid-2025 stood at almost US$2.7 billion (£2.04 billion), with the US, China and Russia the three largest debtors. Despite a significant decrease over the past decade in the peacekeeping budget from US$8.4 billion in 2014-15 to US$5.2 billion in 2024-25, the share of unpaid contributions has more than tripled from 13% to 41% over the same period.

If these two trends persist, the prospects for sustainable conflict resolution will dramatically diminish.

Women as peacebuilders

Aiming to explore how to prevent civil wars from recurring, we analysed 14 protracted peace processes in recurrent civil wars. This analysis revealed that the UN, working with local women’s organisations, was able to create and sustain multi-level coalitions committed to concluding, maintaining and implementing peace accords.

We then tested these findings statistically against 286 agreements concluded in violent conflicts worldwide. This confirmed that – together – UN leadership and the inclusion of women in post-conflict society significantly increase the odds of a peace agreement surviving for more than five years.

Finally, we conducted in-depth case studies of peace processes in the Bangsamoro region in the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, as well as in Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone. This enabled us to establish how the UN and women-led organisations are able to help prevent civil wars from recurring.

What we found was that women’s participation was able to make the needs and experiences of previously marginalised groups visible and address them in peace agreements. For example, Unifem, the UN development fund for women, sponsored an all-party women’s conference at the margins of the Arusha peace negotiations in Burundi in 2000. This ensured that the subsequent peace agreement contained extensive provisions to enhance the socioeconomic inclusion of women in post-conflict society.

When the UN and women-led organisations work together, people who might have been left out of the peace process can be involved in its implementation. Liberia’s peace huts (supported by UN Women) are a visible example of how women can contribute to sustaining peace. Adapted from the traditional Liberian palava hut system, peace huts provide spaces for dialogue, mediation of disputes and the sharing of information.

Cooperation between the UN and women-led organisations can also help provide early warning and action in response to local tensions. This can prevent them from escalating into renewed violent conflict. This dynamic was evident in the key roles played by women-led civil society organisations (often supported by the UN) in creating mechanisms for dialogue before, during and after agreements were signed across all the peace processes we examined.

Our research findings thus offer empirical support for many of the aspirations of the UN’s women, peace and security agenda. But they also show the risks of inaction and, worse, rolling back the fragile progress that has been made in the decades since this vision was formally adopted.

The UN comes in for a lot of criticism. But our findings suggest that it’s probably the only organisation able to leverage the diplomatic, financial and military resources to assist the conclusion and sustainable implementation of peace accords.

Our key finding is that civil wars can be prevented from recurring. But this won’t happen if the very people that can build and nurture sustainable peace are disempowered. World leaders queued up at the annual UN general assembly debate in September to stress their commitment to peace and conflict resolution. But to demonstrate this commitment they need to enable the UN to exercise decisive leadership in peace processes through unwavering diplomatic and financial support. And they need to invest in the local women’s organisations that can facilitate sustainable and legitimate peace on the ground.

The Conversation

Giuditta Fontana is a past recipient of grant funding from the Leverhulme Trust, the Northern Ireland Department for the Economy, the UK Global Challenges Research Fund, the United States Institute of Peace, and British Academy. She is co-convenor of the Political Studies Association Specialist Group on Ethnopolitics and University of Birmingham Representative for the European Consortium of Political Research.

Argyro Kartsonaki has received funding from the German Federal Foreign Office and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). She is past recipient of grants from the United States Institute of Peace and from the Economic and Social Research Council (UK). She is a part of the Centre for OSCE Research at IFSH, co-editor of OSCE Insights, and consults the OSCE as a member of the OSCE Expert Network.

Natascha Neudorfer, or the projects she worked on, have received funding from the ESRC (UK), USIP (US), the Bavarian State (Germany), the Daimler and Benz Foundation (Germany), and the European Union’s Fifth Framework Programme.

Stefan Wolff is a past recipient of grant funding from the Natural Environment Research Council of the UK, the United States Institute of Peace, the Economic and Social Research Council of the UK, the British Academy, the NATO Science for Peace Programme, the EU Framework Programmes 6 and 7 and Horizon 2020, as well as the EU’s Jean Monnet Programme. He is a Trustee and Honorary Treasurer of the Political Studies Association of the UK and a Senior Research Fellow at the Foreign Policy Centre in London.

ref. Involving women in peace deals reduces chance of a conflict restarting by up to 37% – https://theconversation.com/involving-women-in-peace-deals-reduces-chance-of-a-conflict-restarting-by-up-to-37-268325

Seven albums to listen to during a breakup – from Lily Allen to Marvin Gaye

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Charlotte Curran, PhD researcher, applied ethics and moral philosophy, University of Leeds

Lily Allen’s bombshell new album, West-End Girl, has caused a sensation for its depiction of a marriage torn apart. Though the singer has described it as a blend of fact and fiction, fans have taken it to be an account of her breakup with Stranger Things actor David Harbour.

West-End Girl is a vulnerable account of divorce, with accusations of infidelity and betrayal. The album feels confessional, with lyrical details such as the retelling of personal phone calls and private messages. This is likely why it has received such admiration – it gives space for the listener to relate it to their own breakups.

Heartbreak has inspired countless artists to channel their emotions into their creative outlets. Here are six that stand out.


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Rumours by Fleetwood Mac (1977)

Rumours is perhaps the most famous breakup album, not least because the breakups were occurring within the band itself. At the time of recording, drummer Mick Fleetwood had discovered his wife’s affair and bass player John McVie and singer/keyboardist Christine McVie were going through a divorce after eight years of marriage.

Silver Springs by Fleetwood Mac.

Most notably, the songs Dreams, Go Your Own Way, and the B-side Silver Springs detail the relationship breakdown between front-woman Stevie Nicks and guitarist Lindsey Buckingham. All these personal tensions created one of the bestselling albums of all time.

Rumours is a great listen for anyone going through a breakup and wanting to feel hopeful for the future.

Best lyric (Dreams):

But listen carefully to the sound of your loneliness / Like a heartbeat drives you mad in the stillness of remembering what you had and what you lost.

21 by Adele (2011)

Adele’s second studio album, 21, is a heart-wrenching tale of a painful breakup. It so resonated with listeners that it became the longest-running number one album by a female solo artist in the US and UK charts.

Someone Like You by Adele.

The album explores the juxtaposed emotions of anger and sadness that come with the ending of a significant relationship, particularly a first love. It concludes with the cathartic ballad Someone Like You, which presents Adele coming to terms with her ex finding new love and having the optimism to move on too. It’s the perfect breakup album for listeners who want to let their feelings out and bring all of their emotions to the surface.

Best lyric (Rolling in the Deep):

The scars of your love remind me of us / They keep me thinking that we almost had it all.

Here, My Dear by Marvin Gaye (1978)

Described by critics as an “ode to divorce”, Here, My Dear was created as part of Gaye’s alimony and child support negotiations during his divorce from his wife, Anna.

Here, My Dear by Marvin Gaye.

Gaye had intended for this album to be simple and quick, but it turned into his first double-album once he had found passion in writing about his relationship and its end. Here, My Dear is painful and at times petty, dedicating the album to Anna in the first line of the title track and ending with the song Falling In Love Again, to celebrate falling in love with someone new. The album is a great listen for those who are still trying to find closure.

Best lyric (When Did You Stop Loving Me, When Did I Stop Loving You):

Memories of the things we did / Some we’re proud of / Some we hid / So when two people have to part – sometimes it makes them stronger.

Back To Black by Amy Winehouse (2006)

The songs featured on Back to Black detail Winehouse’s tumultuous relationship with long-term partner Blake Fielder-Civil and explore themes of grief and forgiveness.

Back to Black is a complicated reflection on breakups. Its lyrics describe turning to unhealthy coping mechanisms and returning to old flames. The ballad Love is a Losing Game details the loneliness that comes from losing love, paired with the acceptance that a relationship is truly over.

Love is a Losing Game by Amy Winehouse.

This album gives a refreshingly human portrayal of breakups and has been praised as one of the most influential albums of the 21st century. Back to Black is a great choice for anyone not wanting to feel alone in their emotions after a breakup.

Best lyric (Wake Up Alone):

He’s fierce in my dreams seizes my guts / He floods me with dread / Soaked in soul / He swims in my eyes by the bed / Pour myself over him / Moon spilling in / And I wake up alone.

IGOR by Tyler, the Creator (2019)

Many of Tyler, the Creator’s songs point to themes of unrequited love, but it underpins the entirety of his album IGOR. Lyrics throughout imply hurt and lost love in different kinds of relationships, not just romantic.

ARE WE STILL FRIENDS by Tyler, the Creator.

The song ARE WE STILL FRIENDS? points to not wanting to lose a friend, potentially after expressing loving feelings for them. IGOR perfectly captures the pain of confusing breakups, where there are still things left unsaid and questions that need answers. IGOR is a top choice for anyone going through a complicated relationship ending, perhaps with a close friend or family member.

Best lyric (GONE GONE/THANK YOU):

You never lived in your truth / I’m just happy I lived in it / But I finally found peace, so peace.

For Emma, Forever Ago by Bon Iver (2007)

For Emma, Forever Ago was the first album Justin Vernon released under his moniker Bon Iver. It’s a beautifully melancholy take on loss and heartbreak. The album was composed after Vernon had experienced a difficult year, which included a relationship breakup and being asked to leave his previous band.

Blindsided by Bon Iver.

The songs on Emma, Forever ago are emotionally haunting, and its candid storytelling makes listeners feel that they are mourning a loss alongside Vernon. The lyrical transparency on tracks such as Blindsided expresses the sorrow of having a long-term relationship fall apart and the pain of wondering what went wrong.

This album is for anyone wanting to process the grief and sadness of losing someone they wanted to spend forever with.

Best lyric (The Wolves Act I & II):

And the story’s all over you / In the morning, I’ll call you / Can’t you find a clue / When your eyes are all painted Sinatra blue?

What’s your favourite breakup album? Let us know in the comments below.

The Conversation

Charlotte Curran does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Seven albums to listen to during a breakup – from Lily Allen to Marvin Gaye – https://theconversation.com/seven-albums-to-listen-to-during-a-breakup-from-lily-allen-to-marvin-gaye-268801

Secret Maps at the British Library reconsiders the lines that shape our world

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Doug Specht, Reader in Cultural Geography and Communication, University of Westminster

Maps do more than show us where we are or help us find where we need to go. They are powerful cultural documents, reflecting – and often shaping – the values, priorities and secrets of the societies that create them.

This lesson is brought to vivid and sometimes unsettling life in the British Library’s new exhibition, Secret Maps, which draws on more than 100 remarkable items to trace the long and tangled history of mapping as a tool for both revelation and concealment.

From hand-drawn naval charts presented to Henry VIII, to the satellite data hoovered up by our smartphones, the exhibition explores how, across centuries, maps have given form to power, plotted imperial ambitions, and encoded anxieties about security and privacy. But it also shines a light on how maps have empowered communities, memorialised injustice and contested official narratives.

One of the most striking themes of Secret Maps is the use of cartography as an instrument of state secrecy. Many of the earliest items on display were never meant for public eyes: confidential maps of the English coast commissioned for Tudor monarchs, closely guarded charts of “secret” trading routes by the Dutch East India Company and classified military plans for the D-Day landings. The shaping of knowledge was, and often still is, an act of geopolitical strategy.

A particularly evocative display pairs an 1876 map of Dover stripped of its military details for public consumption with a “secret” version, replete with every casemate (a fortified gun emplacement) and hill.

As one panel explains, such acts of omission, deliberate or otherwise, “reflect accepted priorities”. When official cartography leaves blank spaces, it can signal what those in power would rather not acknowledge publicly, or risk falling into enemy hands.

Maps in conflict and protest

State secrecy is only part of the picture. The exhibition moves through the maps used to anticipate or orchestrate conflict. There are projected atomic attack plans for cold war London, clandestine surveys of military posts during the 1926 general strike, and maps of prison sites that are rarely officially recognised. One contemporary exhibit, a quilt made by inmates of Bullingdon Prison, visually and symbolically places the prisoners “back on the map”. It’s a striking refusal to be rendered invisible.

Secret Maps also highlights the dual nature of mapping in social movements. While some communities have had to fight to be mapped at all, Kibera in Nairobi, for example, has long appeared as a blank space on government maps due to its informal settlement status. Others now find themselves surveilled and exposed by new forms of cartographic data, such as through smartphone location data collected by apps including many digital transport tickets. The transition from omission to unwelcome documentation – particularly through community mapping and digital tracking – raises profound questions about power, visibility and autonomy.

Perhaps the most relevant questions raised by Secret Maps concern the intersection of mapping technology and personal privacy.

In a world awash with smartphones, bank cards and travel passes, our movements are continuously logged and mapped. As one exhibit panel observes: “Every day, we unknowingly trade privacy for convenience.” These “secret maps” of our movements are bought, sold, and used to target us in ways most of us never fully grasp. It’s a modern paradox in which the act of mapping becomes both empowering and intrusive.

Crucially, the exhibition doesn’t treat these as merely problems of technology, but as questions of agency. Maps have always both granted power and threatened it, depending on who controls the data, the scale and the narrative.

Secret Maps is at its best when inviting us to reflect on these paradoxes. One central claim, echoed across several displays, is that: “Maps shape perceptions, empowering some while disempowering others.” What is included or excluded is rarely neutral. From colonial land surveys used to dispossess Indigenous peoples, to the “gay-friendly” city guides and Indigenous countermaps (that promote perspectives, knowledge, and rights in opposition to the colonial or state cartography on display), maps have always marked the battle lines of legitimacy and erasure.

The exhibition does not shy away from difficult topics. Maps tracing the infrastructure of apartheid, or those produced to facilitate war or surveillance, sit alongside playful artefacts such as the iconic Where’s Wally? books. The effect is to remind us that all mapping, whether for adventure, statecraft, or protest, is fundamentally about control: who gets to see, who gets seen and who decides.

A rare glimpse behind the lines

With loans from the British Library’s archives and other national collections, the exhibition offers a rare glimpse into how states historically used maps to control knowledge and project power. But it also foregrounds resistance. Community memory projects, counter-mappings, and the growing use of open-source tools reveal what authorities would like to hide.

As lead curator Tom Harper remarked during the opening of the exhibition: “Mapping has responded to the human desire to explore and define our world but can also be used as a tool of concealment.” Secret Maps succeeds in making tangible these tensions, showing how the map, ostensibly a neutral record, is always, in fact, a site of contest.

Secret Maps isn’t just about the maps that reveal or keep secrets, it’s about how those secrets shape our shared and private lives. It’s a timely reminder that every map is as much about power, memory, and identity as about topography or direction.

Whether you are a curious citizen, a student of history, or a digital cartographer, this exhibition offers an essential lens through which to reconsider the lines that shape our world.

Secret Maps is at the British Library in London until January 18 2026.


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The Conversation

Doug Specht does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Secret Maps at the British Library reconsiders the lines that shape our world – https://theconversation.com/secret-maps-at-the-british-library-reconsiders-the-lines-that-shape-our-world-268464

Milei’s win should lock in financial backing from Trump. But at what cost to Argentinians?

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Matt Barlow, Lecturer International Political Economy, University of Glasgow

In late October Argentina’s president, Javier Milei, won a decisive victory in the country’s midterm elections. The scale of the result caught most political commentators off-guard. It now gives the president the legislative capacity to push through his much touted programme of labour and tax reforms.

While voter turnout hit a historic low, those who did vote overwhelmingly supported Milei’s Liberty Advances party, strengthening his chances of consolidating his radical economic agenda of austerity and free-market capitalism.

Milei’s defeat in local legislative elections in Buenos Aires province only a month earlier had led me to ask whether his economic agenda was at risk of being derailed. But this time around, in the same province – a traditional stronghold of the opposition Peronist party – Milei’s party took most of the seats.

Even in his historic presidential election victory in 2023, this was a province that Milei had been unable to win. So victory now could be seen as a validation of his wider austerity policies – and a mark of his popularity.

It is a popularity that seemingly transcends borders – all the way to the White House. In the run-up to the election, much was written on US intervention into Argentine politics. US president Donald Trump offered a US$40 billion (£30 billion) bailout while simultaneously warning the country’s electorate that the offer was conditional on strong voter support for Milei in the midterms.

Immediately after his electoral victory, members of the Trump administration heaped praise on Milei, calling him a patriot and freedom fighter who would make Argentina great again.

Such is the deepening of relations between the US and Argentina that even during the fanfare of President Trump’s east Asia trip, US Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent talked with Milei and posted support for his political and economic agenda on social media. Meanwhile, Milei thanked the US for its “unwavering” support.

Bessent’s post also alluded to the fact that the market should easily meet the “republic’s financing needs for 2026”. This is a bold statement when the market has long been sceptical about Argentina, even when its governments have pursued market-friendly policies.

Investors reacted enthusiastically to the election result, however, pushing the value of the Argentine peso up by 10% (at one point) against the US dollar on the Monday after the vote.

Uncertainty about future government policies towards the peso, which floats in an exchange rate band that prevents it from moving beyond upper and lower levels, meant that all the currency gains had been virtually wiped out by the Tuesday.

Yet there remains an optimism in Argentina that Milei’s electoral victory opens up opportunities for debt sales that could provide a pathway for much needed US dollars to make their way into the economy.

Argentinian oil companies YPF and Tecpetrol have sparked an early bond rush by issuing fresh debt into the markets, while provincial governments are reportedly negotiating with banks to package and sell debt to investors abroad. All of this signals growing investor confidence and could bolster the value of the peso.

A bumpy road ahead

It is of course not all plain sailing. While Milei’s policies have so far tamed inflation – and delivered a surplus for the government finances – they come with risks and high social costs.

Many Argentinians do not, as yet, feel better off. A fall in purchasing power thanks to things like rising supermarket prices and transport costs has meant that many citizens are not feeling the benefit of the lower overall rate of inflation. Some 250,000 jobs have been lost across public and private sectors and 18,000 business have closed, leading to high unemployment and underemployment. Many people must now borrow money to make it to the end of the month.

Milei has previously employed vetoes to stall funding increases in higher education, disability allowances and pensions. These are all emotive policy areas and are likely to generate public backlash as well as placing some of the most vulnerable at risk.

The national budget could also come under renewed pressure. Debt repayments including US$3.3 billion to the IMF are due next year and investment is badly needed into Argentine infrastructure.

Milei has sought investment into extractive industries such as lithium and shale gas and oil as part of his growth strategy. But the infrastructure projects that allow for the transportation of these commodities – and which attract investment – fell under his chainsaw as part of major austerity cuts in 2024.

Half of the 2,700 public work projects unfinished from former president Alberto Fernández’s administration have seen no progress during Milei’s presidency.

Meanwhile, the US bailout is not free money, and voters have voiced worries around the potential costs of Trump’s support. This is not just about economic costs but also autonomy, with some commentators describing Argentina as a new US colony.

It is easy to see why. The Argentine government removed export taxes on grain to increase sales and boost dollar reserves in September, only to re-impose them 72 hours later.

This occurred at the same time as leaked messages show there was concern in the US government that Argentina had an unfair advantage through not paying export taxes. This led Bessent to reassure American farmers that the tax advantage enjoyed by farmers in Argentina would end soon, which it did.

The midterms were both an incredible result for Milei and a moment of reflection for the opposition and political analysts. The vote ended a volatile period of Argentine politics, which was recently described to me as being like a Netflix series.

But as with all good series, there are often sequels. Milei has weathered his first electoral challenge, but many others remain that could hinder the economic growth and prosperity that he has promised.

The Conversation

Matt Barlow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Milei’s win should lock in financial backing from Trump. But at what cost to Argentinians? – https://theconversation.com/mileis-win-should-lock-in-financial-backing-from-trump-but-at-what-cost-to-argentinians-268806