Category: English

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Muiris MacCarthaigh, Professor of Politics and Public Policy, Queen’s University Belfast

Science in the modern era is increasingly reliant on enormous datasets and automated analysis. In astronomy, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) – a ten-year survey covering the entire southern sky almost a thousand times over the next decade – will test the limits of this reliance.

The Rubin observatory, located on a mountaintop called Cerro Pachón in Chile, is expected to catalogue the night sky in exquisite detail. The observatory aims to answer a number of questions about the universe by studying different phenomena in the sky, including supernovae (exploding stars), asteroids, dark matter and the properties of our own galaxy.

What it will also answer is a question dominating all areas of science in the 21st century: how is discovery viewed in the age of big data?

Although primarily funded by the US Department of Energy and National Science Foundation (NSF), the Rubin telescope is the product of a collaborative effort by astronomers spanning six continents and over a dozen countries.

Assistance in setting up its data processing systems was provided by the UK, France, Spain, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Australia, South Africa and Canada, among others. These in-kind contributions provide researchers from these countries with data rights for the LSST.

Alerts providing scientific data are forwarded to seven “brokers” scattered around the world. The brokers are websites or software that astronomers use to access the data from LSST.

The alerts provide information on a new astronomical object, such as its likelihood of being real, its type, the galaxy it belongs to and how its brightness has changed over time. With this data, astronomers are able to select the best candidates for follow-up research.

However, even with the efforts of the software teams and brokers, there is still too much transient data for any research team to sift through. The final stage of data processing from the Rubin telescope will involve scientists using machine learning and AI techniques to identify the best data.

These techniques may be for identifying real cosmic objects among the terabytes of false alerts received, or for classifying the ones most interesting to scientists.

Astronomy is increasingly code-heavy and focused on in-house development. Given the huge amounts of data generated with every night of telescope observations, it is, unsurprisingly, one of the first sciences to turn to machine learning as a solution.

LSST’s Informatics and Statistics Science Collaboration (ISSC), for example, is a group of over 150 data scientists who work on developing tools for astronomy, focusing on the survey’s data science goals.

Astronomy has led the charge in regard to big data, with funding provided by companies such as Amazon and Microsoft for a number of major projects. Indeed, the namesake of the 8.4-metre Simonyi Survey Telescope at the Rubin observatory, Charles Simonyi, is known for software development in the early days of Microsoft, as well as his philanthropic work.

The volume of data produced by the observatory will not only produce opportunities for scientists, software developers and tech workers, but also for volunteers with an interest in astronomy via citizen science projects.

LSST’s partnership with the citizen science platform Zooniverse will ask volunteers to look through data and provide additional context to what they’re shown – identifying interesting objects, discarding garbage data and classifying various types of phenomena.

Future lessons

What does the Rubin observatory tell us about modern astronomy? The 20th century saw a greater push for international collaboration in exploring the skies. The increased sophistication of the resulting observatories means that more and more astronomers are working in the service of enabling science, rather than making discoveries themselves.

The huge amounts of data generated by the survey, and the huge number of personnel required to analyse it, is not novel to Rubin. Other contemporary surveys such as Euclid and the Ligo-Virgo-Kagra collaboration, as well as the next decade’s even larger Square Kilometer Array, each consist of thousands of collaborators worldwide leveraging huge amounts of data.

What is clear is that AI will dominate the scientific discovery space of the Rubin observatory to meet these big data challenges. With more funding from industry to develop AI tools to analyse astronomy data, astronomy is becoming deeply embedded within the tech-sphere that dominates modern life.

Rubin will produce 10 terabytes of data every night, with the aim of a final database size of 15 petabytes at the end of its ten-year survey. With the majority of the 10 million alerts produced each night expected to be false, advanced machine learning and AI tools are required to filter out all but the most promising candidates for follow-up.

By reducing the amount of time spent by astronomers reviewing this data, more time can be spent carrying out new and exciting astrophysics research.

Ownership of both the tools of discovery and the discovery itself is now disseminated among scientists, big tech and the citizens who label data. The unresolved question is whether the cosmos will remain a shared public frontier, or become a domain shaped by the priorities of Silicon Valley.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How big data is transforming what we know about the universe – https://theconversation.com/how-big-data-is-transforming-what-we-know-about-the-universe-278115

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Rebecca A. Drummond, Professor, Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham

An outbreak of invasive bacterial meningitis at the University of Kent has left two people dead and 11 seriously ill in hospital, prompting the UK Health Security Agency to distribute antibiotics to students in the Canterbury area. Here’s what you need to know about the disease and how to protect yourself.

What is meningitis?

Meningitis is an inflammation of the tissue lining that surrounds your brain and spinal cord (the meninges). Any type of harmful microbe, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites, can invade the meninges and cause an infection. (The current outbreak at the University of Kent is caused by bacteria.) This can be very dangerous since the meninges function as a protective layer around your brain. When it becomes damaged, your brain and spinal cord become at risk too.

What is invasive meningococcal disease, and why is it so dangerous?

The bacteria that cause meningitis are called Neisseria meningitidis, and the disease can quickly spread from person to person if they have close contact. The bacteria invade blood vessels in the meninges, damaging them, and this causes immune cells to enter the meninges and produce molecules that trigger inflammation. When the meninges become inflamed like this, the brain can stop functioning properly, leading to serious illness and brain damage.

What are the symptoms, and how do I know if it’s meningitis rather than flu or a hangover?

Meningitis can look different in different people. Symptoms typically include a high fever (but with cold hands and feet), vomiting, headache, joint pain, a stiff neck and feeling unusually sleepy. Some people may become confused or distressed by bright lights and sounds. Some people may also develop a rash that won’t disappear when you press a glass against it. Babies may develop an unusual cry.

If you suspect you have meningitis, particularly if your symptoms are not typical when compared to previous hangovers or flu-like illnesses, then go to your nearest hospital or call for help. It’s better to get checked out than wait and see, as meningitis tends to progress very quickly.

Who is most at risk?

Anyone can get meningitis, but the risk is higher for very young babies and older people. Immune-compromised people – such as those undergoing chemotherapy – are also at higher risk for the infections that can cause meningitis. Outbreaks in younger adult populations, like we are seeing at the University of Kent, tend to happen because of the increased exposure and spread of the bacteria that can cause meningitis.

How does the infection spread?

The bacteria that cause meningitis can spread by close contact, such as kissing and sharing drinks, or through coughing and sneezing. Large events that bring lots of people together can therefore be associated with outbreaks of meningitis, because of the increased likelihood that people become exposed to the bacteria. This is one of the reasons why university students can be at increased risk for meningitis, because there is a lot of social mixing in this group.

Why are healthy students at the University of Kent being given antibiotics?

This is a precautionary measure to ensure that anyone who has been exposed to the bacteria, but perhaps hasn’t developed symptoms yet, is protected. The antibiotics will help kill the bacteria, hopefully before it has a chance to establish an infection or invade the meninges and brain.

Is there a vaccine against meningitis and should I get one?

Several vaccines are available to protect against the most common causes of bacterial meningitis. These are effective and safe medicines that prevent you from getting seriously ill if you do become exposed to meningitis-causing bacteria. The MenB, MMR and pneumococcal vaccines are all recommended for babies in the UK because they protect against bacteria that cause meningitis infections in young children in particular.

How is bacterial meningitis treated, and what happens if it’s caught late?

Antibiotics are the main course of treatment for bacterial meningitis. The earlier these drugs are given, the more likely the infection will be stopped in time before any serious damage occurs.

However, some bacteria can become resistant to antibiotic treatment. When this happens, antibiotics are no longer effective at preventing meningitis. This is why vaccines are very important for protecting yourself against these infections as they can work to protect you even against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

What should I do if I think I or someone I know has meningitis?

Meningitis symptoms typically come on rapidly. If you suspect meningitis, act quickly. The faster that antibiotic treatment is started, the better the outcome is likely to be.

Rebecca A. Drummond receives funding from the Medical Research Council, the Wellcome Trust and the Lister Institute for Preventative Medicine.

– ref. Two people have died from bacterial meningitis in the UK. An expert answers your questions – https://theconversation.com/two-people-have-died-from-bacterial-meningitis-in-the-uk-an-expert-answers-your-questions-278434

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Chris Doyle, Lecturer in Ancient and Medieval History, University of Galway

Celebrated every year with swathes of green and pints of Guinness, Saint Patrick is the most famous of Ireland’s trio of patron saints (the others are Brigid and Colm Cille, aka Columba).

Saint Patrick’s story is well known. Not just because of the annual global phenomenon his feast day has become, but also thanks to a considerable body of original written evidence. Chief among this are his personal writings – the Confession and Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus. But there are also many others – annals, biographies, hymns, poems – written centuries after his lifetime.

The standard story of Patrick goes like this. At some undetermined date in the 5th century AD, while the western Roman Empire collapsed politically, the teenage Patrick was kidnapped from his home in Britain, or possibly Gaul, by Irish raiders. He was then sold into slavery for six years where he tended sheep somewhere in Ireland until, with divine help, he escaped home to his family. Eventually, he felt compelled to return to Ireland and proselytise the Christian faith there. The rest is history, so some say.

But a lesser known story exists concerning not one, but two 5th century characters named (or assumed to be named) Patricius, or Patrick. According to one tradition, both men knew one another closely and were each involved in promulgating Christianity in Ireland.

The two Patricks

One of the earliest references to two Patricks is Saint Fiacc’s Hymn on the Life of Patrick. It was written in the 5th or 6th century but survives in an 8th-century manuscript. Fiacc, a professional royal poet turned bishop, wrote: “When Patrick departed [died], he went to visit the other Patrick and together they ascended to Jesus Son of Mary.”

The Martyrology of Tallaght, an 8th or 9th century calendar of saints’ feast days, gives August 24 as the commemorative date for “Old Patrick … beloved foster father/mentor”. The Annals of Ulster, meanwhile, records the “repose of the elder Patrick, as some books state” in 457.

There are also Irish and continental references to an official papal mission to Ireland in AD431, led by a man named Palladius. But, to further complicate matters, another annular entry, albeit retrospectively added, says that Patrick came to Ireland in AD432, the year after Palladius.

Researchers have tentatively investigated whether this Palladius was either surnamed Patricius, or had had his life and work conflated with the later Patricius.

An even later entry in the 9th century Book of Armagh states that Palladius was “Patrick by another name”.

This small sample of evidence for another Patrick is by no means conclusive. But it makes a good case for two original Patricks operating in Ireland about the same time – a father figure mentoring his younger charge perhaps.

Such relationships were common in early Ireland. Long before Christianity’s arrival on Irish shores, fosterage had been an integral and widespread social institution. The early Irish church adapted the custom to its own organisation, thereby allowing senior clerics, men and women, to assume parental roles for their novices.

Even the Latin name Patricius, with its paternal connotations, suggests this. However, there are other meanings for such a name, including a predecessor. In the Roman world, though, Patricius could be a personal name or an honorific title indicating senior political or military rank. Any of these definitions of the name go some way to understanding the interchangeability of Patricius and Palladius in the early written record.

Why do we only celebrate one Patrick?

So, if there is evidence for two distinct Patricks, each with their own cult following and feast day, how did they merge into one singular tradition? The transition really begins in late 7th century Armagh, a powerful Christian establishment in the north of Ireland.

Armagh’s ecclesiastic authorities sought control over all the Irish churches. Arguing for the legitimacy of its claim, Armagh propagandists, like Muirchú, enhanced its Patrician connections by incorporating all Patrician traditions into one cohesive story. Essentially, enter the official Patrick, with a March 17 feast day, ready to banish snakes.

Historically, scholarly opinion over the two Patricks’ story has been mixed. In 1942, Thomas F. O’Rahilly revived a much earlier theory arguing coherently for the existence of two Patricks. His thesis, while attracting supporters, ignited a controversy that descended into rancour and farce, culminating in a libel case taken against a popular journalist who poked fun at the debate. To some extent, the argument over an original dual Patrician tradition has still not gone away.

Today, however, there is a general openness among modern scholars to at least the possibility of two Patricks. Though, sadly, it probably won’t give the world an extra Saint Patrick’s Day every year.

Chris Doyle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Saint Patrick’s Day and the mystery of the second Patrick – https://theconversation.com/saint-patricks-day-and-the-mystery-of-the-second-patrick-277404

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Maura McAdam, Professor of Management, Dublin City University

Networking is so often presented as a kind of performance – confident handshakes and quick conversations in crowded rooms. But for many people, particularly introverts, these situations feel more draining than energising.

Building contacts and generating opportunities in this way may sound like something that extroverts are naturally better at. But this assumption, and the idea that introverts must therefore be at a disadvantage, is misleading.

Networking does not have to mean being the most visible person in the room. It can simply be about building relationships in a way that feels genuine and sustainable. In my research on women entrepreneurs, including interviews for my new book, Permission Granted, I have seen introverts thrive when they lean into their natural strengths rather than trying to put on an outgoing persona.

Of course men can be introverts too, and face the same misconceptions. Whoever you are, and wherever you are on your career ladder, here are my top tips for succeeding at work as an introvert.

1. Understand your introverted strengths

Introversion is not shyness or a lack of confidence. It is about how you process energy and information. Many introverts are deep thinkers, strong listeners and thoughtful communicators; qualities that can help to build meaningful professional relationships.

You do not need to work the room. Focusing on one or two deeper conversations is often more powerful than spreading your energy too thinly. When introverts approach networking with curiosity rather than performance, it often becomes more natural and far more effective.

2. Understand why networking feels harder for introverts

Across my research and developed further in my book, I emphasise that networking is work. It uses cognitive and emotional energy, after all. Busy rooms can be overstimulating and small talk can be draining. And the expectation to perform socially can create pressure long before an event even begins.

3. Redefine what networking is

At its core, networking is about connection. When you think of it as an opportunity to learn from others rather than to impress them, the pressure lifts. A single sincere exchange might be remembered far longer than a flurry of rushed introductions. People respond to warmth, attentiveness and genuine interest.

4. Prepare in ways that suit your temperament

Preparation is one of the great advantages introverts bring to networking. Being clear about why you are attending an event can help shape the experience and reduce the sense of overwhelm. Identifying a couple of people you would like to meet can help you feel more anchored. And having a few conversation-openers ready (perhaps about the topic of the event or shared interests) can create a sense of ease. A simple, one-sentence introduction is often all you need to start a conversation without forcing anything.

5. Choose environments that work for you

Not every setting suits every temperament. Introverts often thrive in more structured or intimate settings: roundtables, smaller workshops, breakfast events or even one-to-one coffee chats. Large, unstructured rooms can feel overwhelming, and choosing alternatives is not avoidance, it is strategy.

6. Follow up in your own way

Introverts often shine in the quiet, reflective stage of relationship-building: the follow-up. A personalised LinkedIn note or a brief invitation to continue the conversation can go a long way. This deliberate, thoughtful style of nurturing professional relationships is something introverts often do better than they realise.

7. Protect your energy

Networking uses real energy. Feeling drained afterwards is not a flaw; it is biology. Planning downtime before and after events, limiting the number of events per week, and taking breaks during busy sessions helps to maintain balance. Introverts need energy management. Building in recovery time, protecting your quiet and giving yourself permission to rest is essential for maintaining any kind of sustainable networking practice.

8. Depth over volume

Professional culture often celebrates the loudest voice in the room. But long-term relationships grow from listening, curiosity and your presence – all qualities that introverts naturally bring. That is a core theme I return to in my research: you do not need to dominate a room to make meaningful connections. You just need to network in a way that works for you.

Start small. Protect your energy. Trust your quieter strengths. Depth, not volume, is where introverts shine.

Maura McAdam does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Eight tips for introverts who want to get ahead at work – https://theconversation.com/eight-tips-for-introverts-who-want-to-get-ahead-at-work-277677