Category: Academic Reportage

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Aderonke Agboji, Assistant Professor, University of Northern British Columbia

People with brain disorders, including Parkinson’s disease and dementia, are often misdiagnosed as having depression, when in fact what they’re experiencing is apathy. This can delay an accurate diagnosis, which has negative outcomes for patients as well as for their families and caregivers.

Apathy and depression may look alike from the outside, but they arise from different neurobiological pathways and have different implications for treatment, functioning and quality of life for those affected.

Understanding and identifying the differences is crucial. My recent research focused on developing a simple assessment tool to differentiate apathy from depression.

We will see more cases as people age

Brain disorders, particularly Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, as well as Parkinson’s disease, are common in Canada.

According to a 2017 Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) report, an estimated 3.6 million Canadians have been diagnosed with brain disorders. More recently, the Canadian Brain Research Strategy estimates that one in five Canadians is affected by these conditions, with a total estimate of more than 7.5 million people currently living with brain conditions.

As the Canadian population ages due to demographic shifts and improved survival rates from once-fatal illnesses, the number of people living with these disorders will increase significantly.

As of January 2025, dementia alone affected 771,939 Canadians aged 65 and older. The prevalence of dementia increases with age. The likelihood of a diagnosis more than doubles every five years after age 65. We can therefore expect more than 1.7 million Canadians to be living with dementia by 2050.

Similarly, Parkinson’s disease currently affects more than 100,000 Canadians aged 40 and older, with about 38 new diagnoses each day. Current projections predict that by 2050, the rate may rise by nearly 70 per cent.

A growing body of evidence suggests Canada is not prepared for this reality. Expert reviews and health-system assessments highlight persistent barriers to care including limited specialist access, long diagnostic wait times, insufficient standardized care pathways and infrastructure gaps (for example, limited neuroimaging capacity) that constrain early and equitable diagnosis and treatment.

Why we must do better

The lack of Canada’s preparedness for the rapidly growing number of people with brain disorders is harmful in many ways. These include delayed diagnosis and missed opportunities for early intervention, as well as an unsustainable reliance on emergency departments when crises occur.

Fewer than half of Canadians currently living with dementia receive a formal diagnosis. In many regions, wait times for specialist assessments exceed one to two years, further delaying care planning and symptom management. These delays cause significant stress and strain on patients and their family members, many of whom are left to provide a high level of unpaid caregiving without sufficient supports or resources.

As a result, family caregivers often experience both mental and physical health issues that can profoundly reduce their quality of life and place further strain on existing health-care systems. One of the biggest sources of stress is a lack of diagnosis or misdiagnosis.

The key to diagnosis

One of the biggest barriers in accessing timely and accurate diagnoses is the fact that symptoms of brain disorders, particularly apathy, can present very similarly to symptoms of depression. While depression may accompany brain disorders, focusing too narrowly on the symptoms can lead to inappropriate care plans and unsuitable medications, as depression becomes the primary diagnosis while underlying brain disorders remain undetected and undiagnosed.

Understanding apathy is central in addressing current gaps treatment and prognosis. Research shows that symptoms traditionally associated with depression, such as reduced activity and social withdrawal, commonly manifest in people who have brain disorders but it does not always involve sadness or hopelessness, which are core features of depression.

Large international studies show that apathy on its own is linked to a higher risk of cognitive decline and dementia, even when depression is not present, meaning it’s an important warning sign that can be missed if symptoms are mislabelled. When apathy is mistaken for depression, people may receive treatments that worsen their apathy, leading to decreased daily functioning, higher caregiver stress, increased safety risks and poorer health over time.

What we can do to improve?

To improve differentiation between apathy and depression in people with brain disorders, we need targeted assessment tools that detect motivational decline separately from mood symptoms. Research shows that standard depression scales alone often fail to identify apathy because they focus on emotional distress rather than motivation and initiative.

One solution is to adopt a brief apathy-specific tool that is quick to administer in both care settings and at home. This tool consists of three questions:

1. Have you dropped many of your activities and interests?
2. Do you prefer to stay in your room/home rather than going out and doing new things? and
3. Do you feel full of energy?

If the answers are “Yes” to question one or question two (or both) and “No” to question three, apathy — not depression — should be suspected.

Another important solution is to put training and awareness at the centre of clinical practice, education and caregiver support to improve care and quality of life for people with brain disorders.

Research shows that many clinicians, caregivers and health professionals lack specific training on how to recognize and differentiate apathy from depression, which contributes to misdiagnosis and suboptimal care.

Increasing education about apathy including how it presents, why it differs from mood disorders and how to use appropriate assessment tools helps clinicians make more accurate diagnoses and develop tailored care plans.
Training should also extend to multidisciplinary teams and family caregivers, because apathy often goes unrecognized in routine interactions and can be misinterpreted as laziness, resistance or depression.

In brain disorders where cognitive changes complicate the overlap of symptoms, differentiating between apathy and depression is essential to optimal living. Using appropriate screening tools to distinguish these symptoms can lead to better, more personalized care, improved use of health-care resources and, most importantly, can be lifesaving for people navigating complex brain disorders.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Understanding the difference between apathy and depression can be lifesaving for people with brain disorders – https://theconversation.com/understanding-the-difference-between-apathy-and-depression-can-be-lifesaving-for-people-with-brain-disorders-273750

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Margaret McKinnon, Professor and Homewood Research Chair in Mental Health and Trauma, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University

Although mass shootings and gun violence have long plagued American communities, events like yesterday’s mass shooting at a high school in northern British Columbia are rare in Canada.

Following this tragedy, our communities may feel less safe and we may worry about family and loved ones.

The mental health and well-being of many Canadians will be impacted by this mass victimization event, including students and teachers present during the attack and their families, friends and peers. Supporters, including first responders and victim support providers, may also experience mental-health difficulties in the aftermath of the shooting.

Many survivors of mass shootings will experience symptoms of post-traumatic stress, anxiety and depression following the incident, with symptoms persisting one year or longer in a smaller group of survivors.

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Read more:
I research mass shootings, but I never believed one would happen in my own condo in Vaughan, Ont.

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Reactions to traumatic events

Reactions to traumatic events may manifest as emotional, cognitive, interpersonal and physical symptoms.

Emotionally, individuals may become more irritable, experience trauma-related nightmares or struggle with feelings of guilt for not having done more to prevent or mitigate the event.

Cognitive reactions can involve difficulties with concentration, memory or making decisions.

Interpersonally, trauma survivors may find it harder to trust others who were not involved in the incident, or they may notice increased tension and conflict within family relationships.

Physical reactions can include gastrointestinal issues, headaches and difficulty sleeping.

Women, younger Canadians, and people belonging to racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to experience mental-health difficulties following exposure to gun violence.

The mental health and well-being of these groups, along with that of all survivors, should be carefully monitored, and early access to mental-health and well-being supports provided.

Community impacts

Communities are also impacted by mass shootings, including via mental distress associated with fear and anxiety and through school and business closures.

These impacts can persist past the immediate aftermath of the incident, pointing to the need for not only individual mental-health supports for survivors and supporters, but also public health interventions that can support the needs of the community.

Following mass victimization events like school shootings, promoting a sense of physical and emotional safety and providing opportunities for social support from family, friends and the community can assist in healing.

This may include providing for physical needs, such as blankets, and nourishing food, as well as promoting community connection through groups and organizations. Metaphorically speaking, it’s important for survivors and their supporters to remember to put their oxygen mask on first to best assist others.

Family support also contributes to recovery. Parents are encouraged to provide warmth and support, spend time and encourage talking to one another, and maintain routines and social connections as much as possible.

Support network resource

For a directory of mental health services across Canada, a mental health self-assessment tool and individual and community mental health tool kits, see
The Canadian Emergency Response Psychosocial Support Network (CanEMERG), which can can connect you with mental-health resources from coast to coast to coast.

CanEMERG was developed at McMaster University and is supported by financial contributions from the Public Health Agency of Canada.

Margaret McKinnon receives funding from the Public Health Agency of Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, National Defence, Veterans Affairs Canada, the Canadian Institute of Military and Veteran Health Research, the Worker’s Safety Insurance Board, Homewood Health and Homewood Research Institute, the AllOne Foundation, the FDC Foundation, the True Patriot Love, the Military Casualty Support Foundation, the Cowan Foundation and St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton.

– ref. Tumbler Ridge shootings highlight the need for mental health support for survivors and their community – https://theconversation.com/tumbler-ridge-shootings-highlight-the-need-for-mental-health-support-for-survivors-and-their-community-275766

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Emma G Duerden, Canada Research Chair, Neuroscience & Learning Disorders, Associate Professor, Western University

Alarm clocks, maps, books, flashlights, watches, radios, MP3 players, Palm Pilots, remote controls, cameras, handheld recorders and other devices have all been gradually absorbed into a single one: the smartphone.

This convergence has brought unparalleled convenience into our fast-paced lives. Free internet-based calls and messaging, navigation, documentation, entertainment and even authenticator apps required to access work email have become essential daily functions and tasks.

For most of us, smartphones are no longer optional; they’re constant companions that have restructured how we work, communicate and move through the world.

Yet, as smartphones have become increasingly central to everyday life, a counter-trend has begun to take shape. In an effort to combat the attentional drain of smartphones, teens and young adults are deliberately reintroducing single-purpose technologies into their lives.

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Revival of single-use devices

Single-use devices include basic mobile phones with limited functionality (“dumb phones”), standalone digital and film cameras, MP3 players and iPods, e-readers such as Kindles and even paper planners and physical alarm clocks.

Several overlapping factors appear to be fuelling this move to digital minimalism. One is digital burnout and choice overload. Smartphones collapse multiple roles into a single interface, making it difficult to disengage from them. Persistent notifications and algorithmically curated feeds intensify this effect.

Rather than abandoning technology altogether, people are increasingly seeking to use it with greater intention. Instead of accumulating thousands of photos and screenshots on their phones, many young adults are purchasing cameras to capture the important moments, people and places in their lives.

Likewise, there’s a resurgence in iPod and MP3 player sales. These devices allow people to listen to music without advertisements, notifications or algorithmic recommendations.

Patterns of smartphone use help explain why such alternatives are appealing. Not surprisingly, mobile phone use has increased year after year for Canadian adults from 3.2 hours a day in 2019 to 5.65 hours 2023.

A 2022 Statistics Canada report found just over half of Canadians said they checked their smartphone first thing in the morning, and the last thing before bed. Forty-three per cent said they typically check their smartphone at least every 30 minutes.

Canadian adolescents are among the most digitally dependent, with a smartphone penetration rate of 87 per cent in 2021 and about  88 per cent of those aged 15 to 24 reporting that they check their phones at least once every hour.

Mobile phones and screens are deeply embedded in daily life globally. Worldwide, the average person now spends nearly six to seven hours a day looking at screens, with most of that time spent on mobile devices at almost four hours a day on phones alone.. In countries like the Philippines, Brazil and South Africa, daily mobile screen time regularly exceeds five hours.

By comparison, those in the United States and United Kingdom tend to spend slightly less time on their screens, but still a significant proportion of their waking hours engaged with digital devices.

A new trend or old habit?

The turn toward single-purpose devices may appear to be a reaction to smartphones specifically, but efforts to unplug from technology long predate them.

Organized “cellphone free” days were already being promoted as early as the 2000s, already fuelled by unease with “always available” connectivity. What has changed in recent years is not the desire to step back, but who is being most affected and what they are stepping away from.

Today’s single-use movement is being driven largely by people who are deeply embedded in digital work and culture: international workers, those who are self-employed, professionals, those working in creative industries, students and parents.

Research on digital disconnection shows that people are most likely to disengage when they experience persistent time pressure, cognitive overload, blurred work–life boundaries or emotional fatigue from constant exposure to online content.

In that sense, the turn to dumb phones, dedicated cameras or e-readers is less about nostalgia and more about an attempt to use digital tools that help us focus and create, rather than platforms that are designed to constantly capture our attention.

Stepping back from screens

Reducing screen time and social media use can have profound benefits on cognition and well-being. One study found that limiting social media use to around one hour per day reduced symptoms of anxiety, depression and fear of missing out, while improving sleep among young people aged 17 to 25.

Another study blocked internet access on participants’ smartphones for two weeks. A staggering 91 per cent of participants reported improvements in their mental health, life satisfaction and ability to sustain attention, with the effects comparable to reversing 10 years of age-related cognitive decline.

Participants spent more time socializing, exercising and spending time in nature, all of which are associated with improved well-being.

Research on forced digital disconnection also offers insight into the immediate effects of removing internet-enabled devices. In Swedish detention centres, for example, inmates are issued basic mobile phones with no internet access. Ethnographic research shows this eliminated compulsive phone checking and made communication slower and more deliberate.

While the context is extreme, it highlights that once devices designed for endless engagement are removed, patterns of attention and behaviour can change almost immediately.

Thinking of unplugging?

Voluntary forms of disconnection have started gaining traction. Digital detox retreats, for instance, offer a chance to step away from the constant pull of online life. Whether in off-grid cabins or rural retreats, these escapes allow time for reading, board games, cooking and nature walks. They offer a deliberate pause from the looming sense of urgency to be online and the pressure to perform for an audience.

If you’re curious about experimenting with single-purpose devices, a full break from smartphones isn’t necessary. Many people begin by identifying the functions that feel most disruptive, such as social media or constant messaging and relocating others to separate tools.

Simple steps include using an e-reader for reading, a standalone alarm clock to keep phones out of the bedroom or a dedicated music player for commuting.

A more moderate approach includes installing an app that can monitor screen time use, like Brick, or switching smartphone displays to greyscale to mitigate distractions and boost focus by removing colours that grab attention and trigger dopamine loops.

If all the hours spent scrolling were suddenly yours, an entire extra month a year, what would you do with that time? Perhaps it’s time to think about stepping off the feed and reclaiming the moments that are intrinsically meaningful and chosen by you.

Emma G Duerden receives funding from the Canada Research Chairs program.

Rubina Malik does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Burned out by smartphones, young people are choosing flip phones, cameras and MP3 players instead – https://theconversation.com/burned-out-by-smartphones-young-people-are-choosing-flip-phones-cameras-and-mp3-players-instead-273545

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Danilo Giacometti, São Paulo Research Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow, NUPENS (USP)

It’s a cold night in a Canadian forest. Temperatures are below freezing, snow is on the ground and most animals remain hidden to avoid the harsh conditions. But one creature is braving the cold weather.

Blue-spotted salamanders (Ambystoma laterale) are on the move. These small amphibians have left their underground winter refuges and started migrating toward breeding pools, often risking freezing.

For animals whose body temperature closely follows the environment, like salamanders, freezing can be deadly, as the formation of ice inside the body can damage cells and disrupt vital functions. However, blue-spotted salamanders remain active and apparently unharmed under the freezing conditions.

As a group of biologists who study how temperature shapes animal behaviour and physiology, our team has been long fascinated by animals that keep active at low temperatures.

In a recent study, colleagues and I documented salamanders migrating with body temperatures below 0 C in the wild. Our findings highlight field-based evidence that these amphibians can function at sub-zero temperatures without freezing. In doing so, salamanders are possibly extending their breeding season.

Survival strategies

Amphibians have a thin skin that is supported by many blood vessels. This allows them to breathe through their skin; however, it also means they lose a lot of water through evaporation, especially under warm conditions. That means both exposure to extremely cold (risk of freezing) and warm temperatures (risk of desiccation) can be harmful. Consequently, amphibians are often described as extremely vulnerable to environmental change.

At the same time, amphibians are not passive victims of their environment. Many species rely on different strategies to cope with winter, a season that can last several months in parts of Canada. As winters become more unpredictable, with frequent freeze–thaw cycles and reduced snow cover, understanding these strategies is key.

Amphibians generally survive winter through freeze tolerance or freeze avoidance. Freeze-tolerant species can survive even if parts of their bodies are frozen solid. The wood frog (Lithobates sylvatica) is a well-known example: during winter, the frogs allow ice to form in their tissues while their cells are shielded by large amounts of natural antifreeze, like glucose. As temperatures rise in spring, the frogs thaw and resume their normal activity.

Instead of tolerating ice formation, freeze-avoidant animals avoid freezing altogether by keeping their body fluids in a liquid state. This can be achieved by moving to underground refuges, or, as in the case of blue-spotted salamanders, through a physiological process called super-cooling.

Supercooling: staying liquid below zero

To understand how blue-spotted salamanders cope with early spring cold, we studied migrating individuals in Ontario’s Algonquin Provincial Park. We used infrared thermal cameras to measure salamanders’ skin temperatures (an approximation of body temperature) as they moved naturally across the forest floor to make their way to Bat Lake.

This approach allowed us to record body and forest floor temperatures without the need to handle the animals, which is relevant because direct contact can quickly alter their body temperature.

As freeze-avoiders, blue-spotted salamanders would likely die if their body fluids were to freeze. This makes their early spring movement particularly risky, but this is where super-cooling comes in. Super-cooling occurs when liquids inside the animal’s body remain unfrozen below their normal freezing point.

This strategy occurs through a combination of processes. The animal removes surfaces in its body where water molecules can collect and start crystallizing through gut evacuation and partial dehydration. Producing antifreeze (typically sugars) and accumulating them in certain body parts (like the liver) also help in the process, although this occurs in smaller proportions than in freeze-tolerant species.

Previous lab-based research had shown that blue-spotted salamanders could super-cool down to about -1.5 C. Our field measurements not only validated the importance of super-cooling under natural conditions, but also demonstrated that salamanders can remain active at temperatures far below their known minimum super-cooling point, with values as low as –3.6 C.

Since we recorded individuals actively moving over ice, our observations confirm that the animals were not frozen. These results show that salamanders can push their limits further in nature than expected from lab tests alone.

Why do salamanders take the risk?

Super-cooling is unstable. Contact with ice or sudden temperature changes can trigger rapid freezing. That means salamanders moving over ice are operating close to their physiological limit. Why take the risk, then?

The answer lies in timing. Blue-spotted salamanders breed in temporary ponds formed by snowmelt and spring rain, and their breeding season lasts only a few weeks. Arriving at the ponds early increases access to suitable egg-laying sites and reduces competition. Although waiting for consistently warm nights would be safer, it could also mean missing the breeding window altogether.

Early migration appears to be a trade-off: higher short-term risk of freezing in exchange for long-term reproductive success. This behaviour also shows that salamanders respond to small changes in environmental conditions, not just average temperatures.

Winter brings with it various challenges, and opportunities, for animals. Whether they hibernate, develop antifreeze or stay super-cooled, various species have developed fascinating ways of surviving the freezing temperatures.

Danilo Giacometti receives funding from the São Paulo Research Foundation (Brazil).

– ref. Below freezing but still moving: How salamanders stay active in winter – https://theconversation.com/below-freezing-but-still-moving-how-salamanders-stay-active-in-winter-274100