Category: Academic Analysis

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Gemma Sawyer, PhD Candidate, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol

Menstrual cycles are experienced by roughly half of the population for half of their lives. The experiences of menstruation on teenagers are incredibly important, especially as young people are starting periods earlier. Our research shows that this impact extends to their school attendance – and GCSE results.

Previous studies have reported that many young people take time off school and struggle to concentrate in school because of difficult experiences related to menstruation.

However, the role of specific period symptoms and their effect on exam performance and attainment are not well understood. Our recent study examined whether menstrual pain and heavy bleeding – an under-researched symptom – may have implications for school attendance and attainment.

Menstrual-related pain and heavy bleeding are commonly experienced menstrual symptoms. For many, these symptoms may be minor and have few consequences. For others they can be severe and have a significant impact on daily life.

Normalisation of these symptoms makes it difficult for people, especially young people, to identify whether their symptoms are problematic. Societal pressures to hide or conceal menstruation and menstrual stigma also foster feelings of shame, making it challenging to have conversations about periods or ask for help. As a result, many people struggle with menstrual symptoms that affect their health and wellbeing.

We conducted research using data from the Children of the 90s study, which has followed a group of children in the UK from birth into adulthood. In this study, 2,698 teenagers who experienced periods between the ages of 13 and 16 were asked about their experiences of heavy or prolonged bleeding and menstrual-related pain.

We linked this information with data from the Department for Education about the amount of school absences the young people in the study had in year 11. This is the final year of compulsory schooling in the UK, when 15- and 16-year-olds take their GCSE exams. We also linked it with their GCSE results.

Over a third of the teenagers (36%) reported heavy or prolonged bleeding. We found that participants reporting heavy or prolonged bleeding were absent from school 1.7 additional days across year 11. They scored roughly one grade lower in their GCSEs, and were 27% less likely to achieve five A*-C passes including maths and English compared to those without heavy bleeding.

More than half (56%) of the teenagers reported menstrual pain. We found that those with pain were absent from school 1.2 additional days in year 11. They were 16% less likely to achieve five A*-C passes compared to those without pain. These relationships were observed after accounting for other possible causes including ethnicity, socioeconomic position, childhood adversity, age at first period, mother and child mental health, body mass index and intelligence quotient (IQ).

Wider implications

The results from this study fit with many previous studies that have shown menstrual issues can result in more absences and difficulties focusing and concentrating. They also provide further evidence that qualifications can be affected. This shows that menstrual difficulties can restrict the ability of young people to reach their full potential, with possible implications on access to further education or employment prospects.

A recent report from the Higher Education Policy Institute, a higher education thinktank, has found similar effects on absences at university: it estimates that an average student could miss up to six weeks across a three-year university course.

Other studies have shown these effects can persist in the workplace, including a large-scale study in the Netherlands and research on endometriosis by the Office for National Statistics.

The findings that those with heavy or painful periods, on average, were absent from school more and scored lower in their GCSEs are not due to different capabilities among these teenagers. Better treatments and support are needed for people who suffer with these symptoms, as they can lead to issues such as worse sleep quality, fatigue and iron-deficiency anaemia. This can make it more challenging to attend and perform well in school.

Society in general is also not designed to provide enough support to those who menstruate, especially those who suffer with problematic symptoms. Menstrual health literacy is generally low in teenagers. However, this also persists in adults and even medical professionals.

This means it is challenging for young people to identify symptoms. If they do identify them and seek help, they may often be met with attitudes that invalidate their symptoms, discouraging them from continuing to seek help.

Teenagers can face challenges managing menstruation at school. These may include restrictions on when they can go to the toilet, or inaccessibility of period products.

This can lead to many feeling that school is not a safe and supportive environment when menstruating. They may end up missing school entirely, or struggling to concentrate if they do attend school due to worries about managing and coping with menstruation and associated symptoms. Better support is needed for young people who menstruate and who struggle with problematic menstrual symptoms, so they are able to achieve their full academic potential.

Gemma Sawyer is supported by a Wellcome Trust PhD studentship in Molecular, Genetic and Lifecourse Epidemiology (ref: 218495/Z/19/Z). The funders had no role in study design or analysis.

Gemma Sharp receives funding from the Medical Research Council (MR/Z504634/1).

– ref. Period pain and heavy bleeding linked with lower school attendance and GCSE results – new study – https://theconversation.com/period-pain-and-heavy-bleeding-linked-with-lower-school-attendance-and-gcse-results-new-study-262761

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Gianni Lo Iacono, Senior Lecturer in Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey

In his 1941 novel The Library of Babel, Jorge Luis Borges imagines a universe made entirely of books – every possible 410-page combination of 22 letters, a period, a comma and a space. Somewhere within are all the meaningful works ever written, but the vast majority are nonsense.

That’s how it felt when our team began a systematic evidence map on antibiotic resistance, screening over 13,000 manuscripts to find the few relevant ones to our scope. All solid research, but it was a number that could make even our most enthusiastic collaborators go pale. We were wandering our own virtual Babel.
The scale reflects the urgency of tackling antimicrobial resistance (AMR) – a global threat to human health, food security and agriculture that could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, outstripping cancer’s current toll of 8.2 million.

The long fight against resistance

Focusing on antibiotics, Nobel laureate Selman Waksman defined them as “a compound made by a microbe to destroy other microbes”. Humans have understood and used this principle for millennia, from applying mouldy bread poultices to wounds to the antibiotic “golden age” of the 1940s–1960s, when an explosion of new drugs fuelled optimism that infectious diseases might soon be a relic of the past in high-income countries.

This was the era that spawned the much-repeated (and much-misquoted) declaration attributed to US Surgeon General Dr William Stewart: “It is time to close the book on infectious diseases and declare the war against pestilence won.” In truth, Stewart never claimed infectious diseases were “conquered”. He was urging greater attention to chronic illnesses, a sensible priority at the time. But with AMR rising, perhaps the balance must shift again.

Antibiotic resistance is often described as an arms race. When a new antibiotic is deployed, disease rates initially drop, until bacteria evolve resistance. Old threats reappear, while our supply of new antibiotics dwindles.

Agriculture faces a similar battle. Overused pesticides and insecticides, even disease-resistant crop varieties, all lose their effectiveness as pathogens adapt. This leads to “boom and bust” cycles that force the creation of stronger chemicals or new crop varieties.

Researchers are exploring alternative strategies, including ways to harness natural epidemic fluctuations to push harmful species toward collapse. AMR researchers (including me) and agricultural scientists could learn a great deal from one another.

Beyond misuse: the environment’s role

While the misuse and overuse of antibiotics remain major drivers of AMR, environmental factors – from wastewater discharge and pollution to pesticides, fertilisers, industrial proximity and climate – also play a role. The picture is complicated by differences in what is tested (river water, soil, air) and the type of contamination, such as wastewater and heavy metals. Drawing meaningful conclusions from such scattered evidence is daunting. The first step is to gather, organise and share it through a rigorous mapping process.

Read more:
How to detect more antimicrobial resistant bacteria in our waterways

Our own evidence map revealed surprising gaps. Of the 738 studies reviewed, only 16 examined the atmospheric environment. Airborne microbes are harder to detect than those in water or soil, but the imbalance still raises questions. Most research focused on freshwater, probably because it is easier to access and more directly linked to human and agricultural use.

This prompts a provocative question: do scientists sometimes choose research topics not purely for their societal relevance, but because of logistical ease or publishing pressures that make “safe” studies more appealing than riskier or inconclusive ones?

Such decisions can skew research priorities toward what is convenient to study rather than what is most urgent, biasing the evidence base toward positive findings and leaving critical gaps — particularly in regions hardest hit by antibiotic resistance. For example, researchers might favour easily accessible freshwater sites over remote or politically unstable regions, even if the latter face greater threats, simply because fieldwork there is cheaper, safer, and more likely to produce publishable results.

Inequality in research

We also found a stark imbalance in where AMR research is led. The countries most vulnerable to resistance – low- and middle-income nations – accounted for only a small fraction of studies. Limited surveillance, less-regulated antibiotic use, higher disease burdens and poorer waste management all play a role.

Around 91% of research came from high-income countries, with nearly half led by scientists in China and the US. In recent years, China and India – the world’s biggest antibiotic producers – have published far more AMR-related research than their research and development spending alone would predict. This suggests a strategic emphasis on AMR that goes beyond budget size, perhaps reflecting the countries’ manufacturing dominance, national health priorities, and recognition that antibiotic resistance has direct economic and public health consequences at home.

Few studies have explored how climate change interacts with AMR, though this is now an accelerating field of inquiry. Recent evidence suggests the link is growing stronger. Similarly, until 2021, almost no research examined the role of microplastics in spreading resistance – but interest is now growing rapidly, with new studies investigating how these tiny plastic particles can act as surfaces for bacteria to exchange resistance genes and travel through water, soil and food chains.

Read more:
Scientists reviewed 7,000 studies on microplastics. Their alarming conclusion puts humanity on notice

Borges’ library may, in theory, hold a perfect index to every meaningful book. But no one will ever find it. An evidence map is less romantic, but far more useful: it organises what we know, exposes the gaps, and highlights the patterns. In the fight against antibiotic resistance, it’s a way to bring order to chaos, guiding the next chapters of research and policy.

Gianni Lo Iacono receives funding from from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme under grant agreement No 773830: One Health European Joint Programme (FED-AMR project) and the European Union’s Horizon Europe Project 101136346 EUPAHW.

– ref. Environmental antibiotic resistance unevenly addressed despite growing global risk, study finds – https://theconversation.com/environmental-antibiotic-resistance-unevenly-addressed-despite-growing-global-risk-study-finds-262819

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Chris Proudman, Professor of Veterinary Clinical Science, University of Surrey

Chasemore Farm stretches across 340 acres of leafy Surrey countryside just outside London. On a warm midsummer day, small groups of foals and their mothers graze peacefully in the sunshine, flicking their tails lazily at flies. It’s an idyllic scene – but these aren’t just any foals. Bred for speed, stamina and glory, they’re future competitors in some of the world’s most prestigious horse races, where the stakes are high and the prize money even higher.

Like elite human athletes, these young thoroughbreds face significant health risks as part of their sporting careers. So, what exactly are the key risks for racehorses – and how can they be minimised?

1. Bones, joints and muscles

It’s no surprise that the health of bones, joints, and muscles is critical for a racehorse, especially one built to run fast and jump far. Injuries to these systems are the most common threat to their performance, often limiting their careers or ending them entirely.

Bone, in particular, plays a central role – and it’s far more dynamic than many people realise. It isn’t inert; it adapts constantly to the forces it encounters. Modern training programmes for horses reflect this, delivering short bursts of maximal strain followed by low intensity exercise, allowing time for the bone to adapt before subjecting it to the intense demands of racing.

There’s also strong evidence supporting the early introduction of exercise in young horses. Bone and muscle adapt best during early growth. Starting gentle activity in foals can significantly strengthen bones and tendons, reducing the risk of injury later in life.

2. Respiratory infections

Like children in nursery school, young foals often pick up coughs and colds. Their immature immune systems and the close contact with other young horses make respiratory infections common. The consequences can be serious: disrupted training schedules and lingering lung issues can compromise their athletic potential.

Fortunately, coordinated efforts in vaccination and disease surveillance have been highly effective in controlling these infections. International cooperation has helped prevent major outbreaks of equine influenza, safeguarding horse populations around the world.

3. Irregular heartbeats

Irregular heart rhythms, caused by electrical disturbances in the heart, are another concern for racehorses. They can reduce performance and, in rare cases, lead to collapse or sudden death. To address this, screening and treatments adapted from human sports medicine are being deployed, and cutting-edge technologies are being developed to aid early detection. Understanding the underlying causes of these irregularities could unlock more effective prevention strategies.

4. Microbiome and performance

Every racehorse – like every human – is home to trillions of gut bacteria. These microbial communities are increasingly linked to overall health, and now, to future performance. New research from the University of Surrey has found associations between foals’ gut microbiota and their later risk of respiratory and musculoskeletal disease.

While this study didn’t prove a direct cause, the connections are compelling. Perhaps most strikingly, the gut microbiome of a foal at just one month old appears to be critical in shaping future health outcomes.

The research also uncovered links between gut bacteria and future athletic performance, reinforcing the idea of a “gut-muscle axis” – a biological relationship between the microbes in our intestines and the development of muscle tissue.

More than genes?

For over 300 years, the thoroughbred breeding industry has focused on genetic potential: the fastest, strongest, healthiest horses come from elite bloodlines. But this research hints at another form of inheritance that may have been overlooked. A foal inherits much of its gut bacteria from its mother – so microbiota, too, could be a predictor of future performance.

Back in the fields of Chasemore Farm, the foals bask in the sun, unaware of their potential. What they’ve inherited isn’t just good genes – but perhaps good gut bacteria, too. And that invisible inheritance could be just as valuable in the making of a champion.

Chris Proudman consults to The Jockey Club. He receives research funding from the Horserace Betting Levy Board and Hong Kong Jockey Club Equine Welfare Research Foundation.

– ref. Four key health risks for racehorses – and how they can be minimised – https://theconversation.com/four-key-health-risks-for-racehorses-and-how-they-can-be-minimised-262684

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Marc Hudson, Visiting Fellow, SPRU, University of Sussex Business School, University of Sussex

When Donald Trump recently claimed, during what was supposed to be a press conference about an EU trade deal, that wind turbines were a “con job” that “drive whales loco”, kill birds and even people, he wasn’t just repeating old myths. He was tapping into a global pattern of conspiracy theories around renewable energy – particularly wind farms. (Trump calls them “windmills” – a climate denier trope.)

Like 19th century fears that telephones would spread diseases, wind farm conspiracy theories reflect deeper anxieties about change. They combine distrust of government, nostalgia for the fossil fuel era, and a resistance to confronting the complexities of the modern world.

And research shows that, once these fears are embedded in someone’s worldview, no amount of fact checking is likely to shift them.

A short history of resistance to renewables

Although we’ve known about climate change from carbon dioxide as probable and relatively imminent since at least the 1950s, early arguments for renewables tended to be seen more as a way of breaking the stranglehold of large fossil-fuel companies.

The idea that fossil companies would delay access to renewable energy was nicely illustrated in a classic epidode of The Simpsons when Mr Burns builds a tower to blot out the sun over Springfield, forcing people to buy his nuclear power.

Back in the real world, similar dynamics were at play. In 2004, Australian prime minister John Howard gathered fossil fuel CEOs help him slow the growth of renewables, under the auspices of a Low Emissions Technology Advisory Group.

Meanwhile, advocates of renewables – especially wind – often found it difficult to build public support wind, in part because the existing power providers (mines, oil fields, nuclear) tend to be out of sight and out of mind.

Public opposition has also been fed by health scares, such as “wind turbine syndrome”. Labelled a “non-disease”
and non-existent by medical experts, it continued to circulate for years.

The recent resistance

Academic work on the question of anti-wind farm activism is revealing a pattern: conspiracy thinking is a stronger predictor of opposition than age, gender, education or political leaning.

In Germany, the academic Kevin Winter and colleagues found that belief in conspiracies had many times more influence on wind opposition than any demographic factor. Worryingly, presenting opponents with facts was not particularly successful.

In a more recent article, based on surveys in the US, UK and Australia which looked at people’s propensity to give credence to conspiracy theories, Winter and colleagues argued that opposition is “rooted in people’s worldviews”.

If you think climate change is a hoax or a beat-up by hysterical eco-doomers, you’re going to be easily persuaded that wind turbines are poisoning groundwater, causing blackouts or, in Trump’s words, “driving the whales loco”.

Wind farms are fertile ground for such theories. They are highly visible symbols of climate policy, and complex enough to be mysterious to non-specialists. A row of wind turbines can become a target for fears about modernity, energy security or government control.

This, say Winter and colleagues, “poses a challenge for communicators and institutions committed to accelerating the energy transition”. It’s harder to take on an entire worldview than to correct a few made-up talking points.

What is it all about?

Beneath the misinformation, often driven by money or political power, there’s a deeper issue. Some people – perhaps Trump among them – don’t want to deal with the fact that fossil technologies which brought prosperity and a sense of control are also causing environmental crises. And these are problems which aren’t solved with the addition of more technology. It offends their sense of invulnerability, of dominance. This “anti-reflexivity”, as some academics call it, is a refusal to reflect on the costs of past successes.

It is also bound up with identity. In some corners of the online “manosphere”, concerns over climate change are being painted as effeminate.

Many boomers, especially white heterosexual men like Trump, have felt disorientated as their world has shifted and changed around them. The clean energy transition symbolises part of this change. Perhaps this is a good way to understand why Trump is lashing out at “windmills”.

Marc Hudson was employed as a post-doctoral researcher on two occasions on projects funded by the UKRI-funded Industrial Decarbonisation Research and Innovation Centre.

– ref. Why wind farms attract so much misinformation and conspiracy theory – https://theconversation.com/why-wind-farms-attract-so-much-misinformation-and-conspiracy-theory-262192

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Julie Taddeo, Research Professor, History Affiliate Faculty, School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, University of Maryland

To mark the 250th anniversary of Jane Austen’s birth, we’re pitting her much-loved heroines against each other in a battle of wit, charm and sass. Seven leading Austen experts have made their case for her ultimate heroine, but the winner is down to you. Cast your vote in the poll at the end of the article, and let us know the reason for your choice in the comments. This is Jane Austen Fight Club – it’s bonnets at dawn…

Elinor Dashwood, Sense and Sensibility

Championed by Julie Taddeo, research professor of history, University of Maryland

At just 19, Elinor Dashwood is wise beyond her years – and she must be. Like many of Austen’s young women, she suffers the consequences of a father’s careless disregard for his daughters’ futures.

Sensible and reserved, Elinor may seem less exciting than her emotional younger sister, Marianne, but who would you trust in a crisis? A drama queen who nearly grieves herself to death over an unworthy lover, or her sister who quietly endures heartbreak with maturity and grace? When Elinor believes she must accept “the extinction of all her dearest hopes”, we realise that she loves as deeply as Marianne but chooses restraint. She is, in fact, both sense and sensibility.

When Marianne marries the dependable Colonel Brandon, we suspect she believes she has “settled”. Elinor, by contrast, is rewarded with the man she has loved all along (although whether Edward truly deserves Elinor is the subject of a separate debate).

This article is part of a series commemorating the 250th anniversary of Jane Austen’s birth. Despite having published only six books, she is one of the best-known authors in history. These articles explore the legacy and life of this incredible writer.

Emma Woodhouse, Emma

Championed by James Smith, senior lecturer in literature and theory, Royal Holloway University of London

Emma nonchalantly insists that reality conform to her intentions, however outlandish or arbitrary. For one, she is determined to arrange a noble marriage for her friend Harriet Smith, despite her lack of high birth. She hilariously attributes reality’s disappointing deviations to a vulgar lack of decorum – “of judgement, of knowledge, of taste”.

Whereas in other novels such as Don Quixote, Northanger Abbey, and Madame Bovary the principal character flaws are born of reading too much, Emma has been shaped by reading decidedly too little.

Does she feel guilt for her more outlandish whims, including convincing Harriet Smith to decline a real love match? Yes, Austen’s depiction of her mortification is a realistic masterpiece. Does reality get Emma in the end? Sure. She’s ashamed of the way she behaved and endeavours to right her wrongs.

But great comedies let us have it both ways: taking satisfaction in a conciliatory solution to the crazy discrepancies between dream and reality, while transgressively allowing us to feel as though the discrepancy is with us still.

Fanny Price, Mansfield Park

Championed by Emma Sweeney, senior lecturer in creative writing, The Open University

Jane Austen’s mother wrote off the heroine of Mansfield Park as “insipid”, and she’s been dismissed by countless readers since as mousy, unlovable and priggish. Sure, Fanny Price has none of Emma Woodhouse’s wit. She lacks Elizabeth Bennet’s charm. And yet, I’ve never rooted for any of Austen’s heroines as much as I root for Fanny: the Cinderella figure, the frightened child, the poor relation.

Fanny endures real cruelty and neglect. Her place in the Bertram household is genuinely precarious. Fanny cannot afford the jauntiness of life’s Emmas and Elizabeths. Despite having been taught always to consider herself “the lowest and last”, Fanny is the bravest and most subversive of all Austen’s heroines. She resists intense pressure to marry a wealthy suitor and even dares to question her plantation-owning uncle about slavery.

Fanny might have been deprived of a fire in her room, but she certainly has fire in her belly.

Lady Susan Vernon, Lady Susan

Championed by Leigh Wetherall Dickson, associate professor in 18th and 19th-century English literature, Northumbria University, Newcastle

Possessed of an “uncommon union” of beauty, brilliance and “captivating deceit,” Lady Susan
is the most audaciously amoral of all Austen’s characters. She pursues sexual gratification and financial security with equal vigour, while taking “exquisite pleasure” in making those “pre-determined to dislike, acknowledge one’s superiority”.

That she does so while wearing the full mourning apparel of “four months a widow” demonstrates a ruthless manipulation of social surfaces and expectations of behaviour.

To her public, Lady Susan “talks vastly well” to convince of an emotional sincerity that is revealed in private to her co-conspirator, Mrs Johnson, to be false. None of this is admirable but what makes Lady Susan worthy of admiration, a response all heroines must elicit, is how quickly her vexation when thwarted turns into brazen defiance of the forces that work against her.

We can’t help but cheer her resilience when it is declared in her rallying cry “I am again myself, gay and triumphant”.

Anne Elliot, Persuasion

Championed by Katherine Halsey, professor of English studies, University of Stirling

Austen herself called Anne Elliot “almost too good for me” in a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, in March 1817 – just after she told Fanny that “pictures of perfection … make me sick and wicked”.

Anne isn’t a picture of perfection, but she is a delight, and of all Austen’s heroines, she’s my personal favourite. I love Austen’s description of Anne’s “elegant and cultivated mind”, as well as her occasional self-mockery. Anne is intelligent, loyal, self-aware and kind. She bears her considerable trials with fortitude and generosity, and she is, above all, quietly and steadfastly brave.

She has a strong sense of justice, advocating for what is right. She’s “on the side of honesty against importance”, as Austen puts it. And she knows how to survive suffering without becoming bitter. Anne epitomises grace under pressure, and is therefore a much-needed role model in today’s world.

Catherine Morland, Northanger Abbey

Championed by Victorina Gonzalez-Diaz, reader in English language, University of Liverpool

Catherine Morland is a heroine for every modern woman who has ever felt too ordinary for the spotlight. She isn’t exceptionally beautiful or comfortably wealthy like Emma. She doesn’t duel with language the way quick-witted Lizzy Bennet does.

Instead, Catherine is wonderfully average. No practising concertos, no embroidery tournaments, no long-winded diary entries: her chief accomplishments are a nosy naivety and a vivid imagination that can transform a draughty corridor into a murder mystery.

In the end, Catherine still bags herself Henry Tilney (one of the youngest Austenian heroes) and in Eleanor she gains a sister-in-law who keeps Henry’s verbal pedantry in check. Catherine shows that you don’t need riches, brilliance or carefully-catalogued talents to claim happiness: the best way forward is to be “nice” and wish for your life to be a never-ending gothic novel.

Elizabeth Bennet, Pride and Prejudice

Championed by Nada Saadoui, PhD candidate in English literature, University of Cumbria

Elizabeth Bennet’s wit is legendary, but her true power lies in her refusal to conform. She declines her cousin Mr Collins not with coyness but as a “rational creature”, asserting her right to choose. She speaks her mind, laughs at pretension, learns from error, and demands love founded on equality. She’s an “obstinate, headstrong girl” who best embodies Austen’s radical heart.

Elizabeth does not drift into gothic fantasy like Catherine Morland, nor does she suffer the destructive excesses of sensibility like Marianne Dashwood. Instead, she strides through Austen’s landscapes with perceptiveness, humour and growth. Her rejection of Mr Darcy’s first proposal is as revolutionary as her refusal of Collins – she demands respect, not rescue.

Flawed yet gloriously self-aware, Elizabeth moves with purpose, defying social expectations to forge her own path. In her, Austen crafted not just a spirited protagonist but a timeless symbol of thoughtful rebellion. Two centuries on, Lizzy remains unapologetically sharp, delightfully human and utterly unforgettable.

Now the experts have made their case, it’s your turn to decide which of Austen’s heroines is her best. Vote in our poll below, and see if our other readers agree with you.

This article features references to books that have been included for editorial reasons, and may contain links to bookshop.org. If you click on one of the links and go on to buy something from bookshop.org The Conversation UK may earn a commission.

Emma Claire Sweeney received funding from Arts Council England to help with the research and writing of A SECRET SISTERHOOD: THE HIDDEN FRIENDSHIPS OF AUSTEN, BRONTE, ELIOT AND WOOLF.

James Smith, Julie Taddeo, Katherine Halsey, Leigh Wetherall Dickson, Nada Saadaoui, and Victorina Gonzalez-Diaz do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Who was Jane Austen’s best heroine? These experts think they know – https://theconversation.com/who-was-jane-austens-best-heroine-these-experts-think-they-know-253085