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February 6, 2026

Federal and state authorities are taking a 2-pronged approach to make it harder to get an abortion

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Naomi Cahn, Professor of Law, University of Virginia

The quest to restrict Planned Parenthood’s funding has made headway. Bill Clark/CQ-Roll Call, Inc via Getty Images

Anti-abortion conservatives have long sought to force Planned Parenthood’s clinics to close their doors and to make it harder, if not impossible, to get abortion pills as part of a two-pronged approach to limit access to abortion.

First, undermine Planned Parenthood and other abortion providers by questioning their credibility and block their funding. Second, try to ban mifepristone – a drug used in more than half of all abortions – in part by saying it’s unsafe.

As law professors who teach courses about health, poverty and reproductive rights law, we’re closely watching what’s happening with both strategies. We are particularly interested in how they will affect women’s health care, now that each state can write its own abortion laws.

Attacking Planned Parenthood

Opponents of abortion rights are attacking Planned Parenthood because its clinics perform hundreds of thousands of abortions, in addition to more than 9 million other procedures, every year.

For example, it screens patients for cancer, provides contraceptive care, tests people for sexually transmitted infections, conducts pregnancy tests and offers prenatal services. Abortions account for only 4% of all of Planned Parenthood’s services.

Conservative-led states are taking aim at the nonprofit with both litigation and legislation.

For example, the attorneys general of Missouri and Florida allege in 2025 lawsuits that Planned Parenthood’s website “lies” about the safety of mifepristone.

Planned Parenthood is not the only nonprofit that is accused of deceiving the public that way. In December 2025, the South Dakota attorney general sued Mayday Health, a reproductive health education nonprofit, alleging that its advertising in South Dakota violated a state law that bans “deceptive practices.”

In late January, after Mayday countersued in a federal court in New York, that court temporarily blocked South Dakota’s actions.

Other states are taking similar steps. Kentucky, which, like South Dakota, has a nearly complete ban on abortion, is investigating the legality of ads that Mayday Health posts at gas stations. The ads tell women how they can get help obtaining an abortion.

Undermining funding

Meanwhile, state and federal efforts to reduce Planned Parenthood’s funding are making headway.

In June 2025, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Medina v. Planned Parenthood South Atlantic in favor of South Carolina’s attempt to bar its Medicaid program from reimbursing Planned Parenthood for health care services. That decision made it clear that any state may deny Medicaid funding for care provided by organizations, such as Planned Parenthood, that perform abortions.

Medicaid, the U.S. government’s health insurance program that primarily covers low-income people, is jointly funded by federal and state governments. About 1 in 10 women of reproductive age who received family planning services and are enrolled in Medicaid relied on Planned Parenthood’s services in 2021.
EG: Is it more accurate to say “… who in 2021 received family planning services and WERE enrolled in Medicaid relied on Planned Parenthood’s services”?

Under what’s known as the Hyde Amendment, federal Medicaid dollars may not be used to pay for abortions except in cases of life endangerment, rape or incest. States are free to use their own Medicaid dollars to pay for abortions, and some do so.

Shortly after the Supreme Court ruling, Congress passed a measure prohibiting federal Medicaid dollars from going to any clinics that perform abortions – such as Planned Parenthood.

A sign for more information about Medicaid is seen in a clinic's office. — A sign for more information about Medicaid is set up in the patient waiting area in the Greater Boston Health Center at Planned Parenthood League of Massachusetts on July 23, 2025.
Suzanne Kreiter/The Boston Globe via Getty Images

The provision, which bars reimbursement for all services, including those unrelated to abortion, was in the big tax-and-spending package that President Donald Trump signed into law on July 4, 2025. The defunding measure went into effect immediately, for one year, and applies to the whole country.

The provision is supposed to end in July 2026.

Due in part to the financial pressure that measure caused, Planned Parenthood says that dozens of its clinics around the country closed in 2025.

Planned Parenthood, as well as 22 states and Washington, D.C., challenged this provision in two lawsuits in a Massachusetts federal court.

The court granted Planned Parenthood’s request to dismiss its case in January 2026. The other case, brought by the states and Washington, D.C.’s local government, is still pending.

Trying to discredit mifepristone’s safety

Efforts to designate mifepristone as a dangerous drug began before the Food and Drug Administration approved its use in 2000. Abortion opponents have stepped up that campaign since the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade with its Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization ruling in 2022.

That same year, a group of doctors and medical associations opposed to abortion challenged the FDA’s approval of mifepristone and the guidelines governing its prescription.

In essence, they claimed that there was insufficient evidence demonstrating the drug’s safety, although it has been used by millions of people for more than 20 years. Several prominent medical associations, citing hundreds of peer-reviewed clinical studies and decades of evidence-based research, assert that the drug is “conclusively safe.”

Many studies have found that mifepristone is as safe as ibuprofen and safer than Viagra.

Ultimately, the Supreme Court rejected the lawsuit because the doctors did not have standing. That is, the physicians couldn’t show that they faced any clear and concrete harms from the FDA’s actions making mifepristone more widely available.

Packages of mifepristone tablets are displayed. — Packages of mifepristone tablets are displayed at a family planning clinic.
Anna Moneymaker/Getty Images

Arguing that the FDA made a mistake

But in 2024, the Missouri, Kansas and Idaho state governments were allowed to join the lawsuit, after they argued that they had standing.

The three states similarly claimed that the FDA acted improperly in 2016 as well as later, when it loosened the regulations around mifepristone, including allowing it to be prescribed via telehealth or mailed to patients.

While their case works its way through the courts, other states are questioning the FDA’s treatment of the drug.

In late 2024, Louisiana classified abortion pills as controlled substances, restricting their use more tightly than the FDA. In October 2025, the state went further, challenging the FDA’s loosened regulations, including its elimination of requirements that the pill be dispensed in person.

And in early December, Florida and Texas sued the FDA. Those states argue that its approval and regulation of mifepristone violated several federal laws, including one that gives the FDA authority to regulate drugs.

Revisiting safety findings

There are also regulatory threats to mifepristone’s availability because the Trump administration is reconsidering evidence regarding the drug’s safety.

In September 2025, Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. said the FDA would conduct “its own review of the evidence,” including the drug’s “real-world outcomes and evidence, relating to the safety and efficacy.”

Kennedy referenced a report cited by 22 Republican state attorneys general that, according to Kennedy, indicates “potential dangers that may attend offering mifepristone without sufficient medical support or supervision.”

The report has not been peer-reviewed or published in a medical journal. Many experts describe it as “junk science.”

If the FDA were to find mifepristone unsafe or to further restrict how it’s prescribed, this could make it harder to get an abortion. While misoprostol, which is commonly prescribed for ulcer prevention, can be used alone for abortions, it is less effective and less safe than when it’s used in combination with mifepristone.

What happens next might take a while. Some efforts to end access to mifepristone appear to be on hold – for political rather than legal reasons.

FDA Commissioner Marty Makary told the officials working in his agency in December 2025 to delay their review of data concerning the safety of mifepristone “until after the midterm elections” in November 2026.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Federal and state authorities are taking a 2-pronged approach to make it harder to get an abortion – https://theconversation.com/federal-and-state-authorities-are-taking-a-2-pronged-approach-to-make-it-harder-to-get-an-abortion-271378

February 6, 2026

US experiencing largest measles outbreak since 2000 – 5 essential reads on the risks, what to do and what’s coming next

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Alla Katsnelson, Associate Health Editor, The Conversation

The vast majority of people who get measles are not vaccinated against the measles virus. Andrzej Rostek/istock via Getty Images Plus

The measles outbreak in South Carolina reached 876 cases on Feb. 3, 2026. That number surpasses the 2025 outbreak in Texas and hits the unfortunate milestone of being the largest outbreak in the U.S. since 2000, when the disease was declared eliminated here.

The outbreak is exposing the breadth of dangers the disease can pose. South Carolina’s state epidemiologist revealed on Feb. 4 that cases of brain swelling, a rare complication of the disease, had emerged in some infected children, according to Wired magazine.

Some signs suggest that this particular outbreak may be starting to wane. But many public health scholars worry that the resurgence of measles across the U.S. and worldwide, driven by a drop in vaccination rates, may signal a coming wave of other vaccine-preventable diseases

The Conversation U.S. compiled a set of five stories from our archives to help readers gauge both practical considerations around vaccination and the bigger picture of what the return of measles might mean for public health.

1. A measles vaccine primer

Measles is one of the most contagious human diseases on the planet – much more contagious than more familiar infectious illnesses such as flu, COVID-19 and chickenpox. But the vaccine, which is given as a two-dose regimen, is 97% effective in preventing measles infection, wrote Daniel Pastula, a neurologist and medical epidemiologist at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus.

Most people born after 1957 have received the vaccine as children. A striking – though unsurprising – feature of the South Carolina outbreak is that at least 800 of the reported cases occurred in people who weren’t vaccinated.

A child holds a cotton ball against their upper arm, where they received a vaccine — The measles vaccine is so effective that many doctors practicing today have never seen a case of the disease.
RuslanDashinsky/E+ via Getty Images

For those worried about the risks and wondering how to protect themselves, Pastula offered some essential practical guidance.

“The immunity from a vaccine is effectively the same immunity you get from having measles itself – but vastly safer than encountering the wild virus unprotected,” Pastula explained. “The point of vaccines is to create immunity without the risks of severe infection. It is basically a dress rehearsal for the real thing.”

2. Long-term consequences

Most people who contract measles will experience 10-14 days of a high fever, cold-like symptoms, eye inflammation and a rash that starts on the face and spreads across the body. Because the infection usually resolves on its own, it’s easy to dismiss the fact that it can have severe consequences.

“What generally lands people with measles in the hospital is the disease’s effects on the lungs,” wrote Peter Kasson, a biologist studying viruses at the Georgia Institute of Technology, in an article explaining the near- and long-term risks of infection.

Perhaps the most terrifying is a condition called subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, or SSPE, in which the virus lies dormant in the brain of someone who recovered from a measles infection and reawakens 7-10 years later to cause “a progressive dementia that is almost always fatal,” Kasson wrote.

This outcome is rare, but it does happen. The Los Angeles County public health department reported a case in September 2025.

3. What’s at stake

A common adage in public health is that vaccines are often victims of their own success. That’s particularly true for the measles vaccine – because it’s so effective, many doctors and nurses practicing today have never seen a case.

Infectious disease pediatrician Rebecca Schein at Michigan State University explored recent modeling studies that predict the trajectory of measles infection rates. One 2025 study she described found that the U.S. is on track to see 850,000 cases over the next 25 years at current vaccination rates.

“If vaccine rates decrease further, the study found, case numbers could increase to 11 million over the next 25 years,” she wrote.

That scenario is not a foregone conclusion, of course. Another study suggested that outbreaks could be contained if they’re stopped quickly – as long as 85% of the population is vaccinated against the disease.

An image of the measles virus structure — Measles is one of the most contagious diseases in the world.
koto_feja/iSotck via Getty Images Plus

4. Why do some parents opt out of vaccines?

Much ink, digital and otherwise, has been spilled discussing the rise of vaccine hesitancy in the U.S. and globally. But a safe assumption is that parents the world over want the same thing: to keep their children as healthy as possible.

To explain how parents might reasonably weigh the risks posed by vaccines and the risks posed by a disease like measles and decide not to vaccinate, public policy expert Y. Tony Yang and health economist Avi Dor at George Washington University invoked a mathematical framework called “game theory”.

“Game theory reveals that vaccine hesitancy is not a moral failure, but simply the predictable outcome of a system in which individual and collective incentives aren’t properly aligned,” they wrote.

5. Measles-free status

Measles is said to be eliminated from a country after at least 12 months in which there’s minimal spread of the disease internally and only small outbreaks linked to international travel.

The World Health Organization announced on Jan. 26 that the U.K. and five other European countries lost their measles elimination status, according to Reuters. And the organization’s Pan American office issued an alert on Feb. 3, noting the alarming spread of the disease across North, Central and South America.

In November 2025, when Canada lost its measles elimination status, global health epidemiologist Kathryn H. Jacobsen at the University of Richmond noted that the U.S. will likely lose it in 2026, along with Mexico.

Jacobsen explained why this designation is so important for public health.

“The loss of measles elimination status is a symptom of a deeper issue: declining trust in public messaging about science and health, which has led to decreased vaccination rates and growing vulnerability to vaccine-preventable diseases,” she wrote.

This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.

– ref. US experiencing largest measles outbreak since 2000 – 5 essential reads on the risks, what to do and what’s coming next – https://theconversation.com/us-experiencing-largest-measles-outbreak-since-2000-5-essential-reads-on-the-risks-what-to-do-and-whats-coming-next-275164

February 6, 2026

Schools aren’t designed for autistic children – these are the sensory challenges they face

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Keren MacLennan, Lecturer in Psychology, University of Bath

In the academic year so far, the proportion of children who are “persistently absent” from schools in England – missing at least 10% of school sessions – stands at 19.5%. This is up from last year – and significantly higher than the 10.5% who were persistently absent before the pandemic.

The UK government’s “back to school” call in 2025 proposed a crackdown on “bad behaviour” to address this issue and get children back into classrooms. But a focus on bad behaviour may be missing the mark. Research suggests that in the majority of cases, school absence is underpinned by severe school distress and anxiety. Even more alarming is that many of these children are autistic.

Our schools and education system have not been designed for autistic children, who have neurological or thinking styles that diverge from what society sees as typical.

Up to 94% of autistic people have divergent sensory processing. This means that sensory information, such as loud sounds, bright lights and strong scents, can be distressing and overwhelming. In busy classrooms, dining halls and playgrounds, children are exposed to an onslaught of unpredictable and inescapable sensory information that becomes overwhelming across the day. This has been reported as a key reason autistic children experience distress and anxiety in school.

Here are the types of sensory information that autistic children tend to find more distressing, as well as some ways to support these challenges.

Sounds

Sudden and loud sounds, as well as environments with layers of different background noise, are commonly distressing for autistic people. Classrooms, dining halls and playgrounds have complex soundscapes with lots of chatter and noise from chairs and objects being moved about. There are also sudden sounds that can startle autistic children. These can include school bells, doors banging or teachers raising their voice or clapping to get the attention of pupils.

In research my colleagues and I carried out, autistic people, parents and teachers reported loud classrooms as the top contributor to school anxiety. But even in a quiet classroom, autistic children may struggle to filter out more subtle sounds, such as the buzzing from lights, clocks ticking, pens tapping and people whispering. These can also affect an autistic child’s ability to focus on their work.

Allowing children to listen to music with noise-cancelling headphones, use ear defenders or plugs, or sit somewhere quiet if the noise becomes overwhelming can help address these challenges.

Sights

Bright lighting, especially if it is artificial or fluorescent, can cause distress for autistic people. Classrooms and dining halls often have bright overhead lighting and children do not have the control to lower the lighting levels. Classroom walls are also often covered with busy display boards. This can cause distraction for all children, but especially autistic children.

This could be mitigated by allowing children to wear tinted glasses or to sit away from direct sunlight or bright overhead lighting.

Smells

Many autistic people can struggle with strong food smells, as well as cleaning products and perfumes. In schools, children can be exposed to food smells from canteens and packed lunches. There may also be a range of smells arising from peers and teachers, such as perfumes, coffee or body odour.

Having the option of a place to eat away from the canteen or large groups of other children could help autistic children cope with this.

Touch

Scratchy clothing fabrics and clothing labels are challenging for many autistic people. Mandatory school uniforms can cause distress for autistic children. They have limited choice in fabric and styles. Some elements of the uniform, such as blazers or school ties, may come with no choice at all.

Allowing some flexibility over clothing choices and cutting labels out of clothes could help here.

Making sensory-inclusive schools

Beyond individual support strategies, a range of steps can help make schools more sensory-inclusive. Providing flexible access to low-sensory spaces, such as rooms or dens, allows children to take breaks to recover from sensory information when they feel overwhelmed. In an ideal world, lighting and sound absorption would be improved, but at the very least sensory-inclusive design should be considered when new schools are being built.

There is also still widespread misunderstanding of autism and sensory challenges in schools. Richard Tice, deputy leader of Reform UK, declared in November 2025 that children wearing ear defenders in a classroom is “insane” and has “got to stop”. But these sensory aids are essential for some children to attend school. Implementing evidence-based training for school staff and pupils on neurodiversity and autism, as well as training on sensory-inclusive spaces, can increase understanding and acceptance.

Importantly, this issue spreads beyond our schools. Many spaces in our communities pose sensory challenges – creating barriers to vital services and affecting mental health. The sensory environment affects everyone, so by making spaces more sensory-inclusive for autistic people, we may also make spaces better for all.

Keren MacLennan has previously received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and Research England.

– ref. Schools aren’t designed for autistic children – these are the sensory challenges they face – https://theconversation.com/schools-arent-designed-for-autistic-children-these-are-the-sensory-challenges-they-face-273498

February 6, 2026

Bridgerton season four explores sexual and class power dynamics more than any season before

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Polina Zelmanova, PhD Candidate in Film and Television Studies, University of Warwick

One thing Bridgerton has unquestionably mastered is the depiction of sex. This season, women’s pleasure once again takes centre stage with several conversations about orgasms, or “pinnacles” and several references to past steamy scenes, including last season’s infamous carriage exchange.

Sex is everywhere. It spills out of every image, from every surface. The glistening chandeliers, colourful flower arrangements, lights and decoration all contribute to the horny mise-en-scene. The combination of framing, lighting, colour, performance and production design combine to create a sexy vibe.

Within such excess, small gestures take on a new erotic significance – a gentle kiss on the wrist, a touch of fingertips, a glance across the room. All of this contributes to a feminine model of desire that is multi-orgasmic, expanding pleasure across the screen rather than containing it to an individual sex scene. The fourth season of Bridgerton does not disappoint on this front.

This season’s central romance is inspired by the Cinderella trope, where class and social division are the main obstacles for the lovers. It raises a timely discussion of power, particularly pertinent to depictions of sex in a post #MeToo era.

A Cinderella story

This season focuses on the second eldest son, Benedict Bridgerton (Luke Thompson), and is so far adapted quite closely from Julia Quinn’s third Bridgerton novel An Offer from a Gentleman. Benedict is a self-proclaimed “lover of pleasure, a free spirit, untrammelled by mere convention”.

Pursuing a career as an artist, Benedict has come to be known as a bohemian of sorts. His queerness and ventures into non-monogamy are outside understandings of permissible relationships within Regency society. And, although it’s time for this rake to settle down, Benedict stays true to his rebellious nature.

Meeting at a masked ball, Benedict instantly falls for a charming and mysterious woman in silver. But when the clock strikes 12, she flees without revealing her identity, leaving behind only a satin glove and the traces of a passionate kiss that leaves them both in a state of perpetual yearning. And so, the “prince’s” quest for his mysterious maiden begins.

While Benedict is left love struck and confused, the mystery woman rushes home to assume her true identity as a maid. Despite the familiar setup, Sophie Baek (Yerin Ha) is wonderfully defiant and outspoken, aligning with a more modern tradition of Cinderellas that reject the original character’s subservience and passivity.

A glimpse below stairs

For the first time Bridgerton shows us the well-oiled machine of the servants’ quarters to which Sophie belongs. This season attempts a social critique of the class structures that, until this point, has remained peripheral.

From baking and cleaning to arranging secret sexual rendezvous for their employers, servants are seen as crucial to the opulent world we have experienced so far. So crucial, in fact, that when one house poaches a handful of vital servants, they set off what gossipmonger Lady Whistledown calls “the maid wars”. These poaching leave the ton (fashionable high society of Regency-era England) aflutter, with some houses poaching in turn and others becoming more appreciative of their labour.

This upstairs-downstairs glimpse contextualises the obstacles that this season’s couple face and the power dynamics that are at play.

When they meet again, unmasked, Benedict doesn’t recognise Sophie. Despite his loyalty to his mystery lady and the fact of Sophie being a maid, he falls in love anew – leaving him in a predicament.

“We must marry according to class, but we do not always love that way,” Benedict’s friend Will Mondrich tells him. Previously, his siblings Anthony and Eloise found themselves unsuccessful in their pursuit of relationships outside of their class. This is not a hopeful precedent for Benedict.

However, desire is hard to ignore and as their feelings grow hotter, the threat of scandal looms large. With the family reputation at stake and sisters still to wed, reality leaves him with no other option at the end of part one than to pop the critical question: “Will you be my mistress?”

Mistresses were women who had arrangements with wealthy and upper-class men, offering their sexual and social services in exchange for financial benefits and comfort. Despite potential privileges, these women were excluded from polite society and could never hope to legitimise their relationship through marriage, leaving them at the mercy of their “protector”.

A very indecent proposal indeed.

It also, sadly, brings things full circle. When Benedict re-meets Sophie, she is defending another maid from unwanted advances from their master. Her act of denial and defiance ends with both of their dismissals. Although Benedict saves her, securing her a job in his family home, and his advances are (somewhat) wanted, he ultimately puts her in a similar position.

The sexual encounter between the pair takes place on the staircase that separates the upstairs from downstairs, reminding us of the class conflict that is an obstacle to the longevity and legitimacy of their relationship.

Although Sophie is undeniably into Benedict, the wise housekeeper Mrs Crabtree warns Benedict that their difference in social station means that Sophie doesn’t really have the freedom to say no to him.

Benedict does not heed this warning and pushes on with his proposal, despite Sophie’s explicit statements about not wanting to risk the best job she’s ever had. With this proposal, his class power means he has everything to gain, and Sophie everything to lose. At the end of part one, Sophie is back where she started: the desires of a rich man threatening her stable employment and safety.

Although we see her reject Benedict’s offer, with part two still to come, Sophie is faced with the harsh reality of the limited options available to a woman of her stature when it comes to love. The question remains as to how the show will resolve this tension, and whether Sophie’s identity as an illegitimate heiress may be the secret ingredient to this Cinderella’s happy ending.

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Polina Zelmanova receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council to support the research undertaken as part of her PhD.

– ref. Bridgerton season four explores sexual and class power dynamics more than any season before – https://theconversation.com/bridgerton-season-four-explores-sexual-and-class-power-dynamics-more-than-any-season-before-274997

February 6, 2026

From bodybuilding to the local gym: how performance-enhancing drugs can damage the heart

Source: The Conversation – UK – By David Oxborough, Professor of Echocardiography and Cardiovascular Physiology, Liverpool John Moores University

Gym-goers who use IPEDs may not be aware of their heart harms. Andrii Iemelianenko/ Shutterstock

Image and performance-enhancing drugs (IPEDs), such as steroids and human growth hormone, can harm the heart – and it isn’t just elite bodybuilders who are at risk.

With a growing number of everyday gym-goers taking these drugs to improve their fitness or enhance their appearance, what was once a niche issue in competitive sports is quickly becoming a wider public health concern.

For decades, bodybuilders and athletes have used IPEDs including anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, peptides and selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs), to increase muscle size, boost strength and improve physical appearance.

But in recent years, the number of regular gym-goers using IPEDs has become a growing concern. Estimates from 2014 suggested around 3% of regular gym-goers globally used IPEDs. These figures are now more than ten years old and probably underestimate current use.

Although the demand to have an unrealistic, idealised body has existed for generations, social media has amplified these pressures. Social media has also made it easier to access IPEDs. These factors might help to explain why people who use apps such as TikTok and Instagram are more likely to use anabolic steroids.

But while social media may be normalising the use of IPEDs to achieve the perfect physique and peak fitness, it’s important gym-goers know about the serious costs these drugs can have on heart health.

Research from Italy shows that competitive male bodybuilders who use IPEDs have a ten-times higher risk of sudden cardiac death compared with athletes who don’t use performance-enhancing drugs.

Studies have shown that female athletes who use IPEDs also have a higher risk of sudden cardiac death compared to non-users – though their risk is slightly (7%) lower compared to men.

These deaths are linked to a range of heart conditions caused or worsened by IPED use. These include cardiomyopathy (disease of the heart muscle), myocardial fibrosis (scarring of the heart), abnormal thickening of the heart wall, early-onset coronary artery disease, heart rhythm disturbances and stroke.

Research shows anabolic steroids can alter cell signalling pathways involved in heart growth and remodelling, disrupt hormonal regulation and increase blood pressure. Steroids can also cause adverse changes in lipid (fat) levels that cause plaques (fatty deposits) to form in the arteries.

Together, these changes weaken the heart and make it less efficient at supplying the body with blood. Even in people who appear fit, this hidden damage can leave the heart more vulnerable to failure, rhythm problems and sudden cardiac events.

A fit man injects a small needle into his bicep. — It’s not just elite bodybuilders anymore who are putting their heart at risk.
George Rudy/ Shutterstock

These findings are deeply concerning – not just for elite bodybuilders, but for regular gym users who may be taking unregulated drugs with little awareness of the risks.

Heart changes

At Liverpool John Moores University, we have spent the past six years studying heart health in people who use IPEDs. Our research looked at around 100 users, most in their early 30s, ranging from elite bodybuilders to recreational gym users. These users were then compared against non-users.

We used electrocardiography (ECG), which records the heart’s electrical activity, and echocardiography, an ultrasound scan of the heart. These tools allowed us to assess all four chambers of the heart and detect early signs of heart problems that may not yet be causing symptoms.

We found that IPED users had a larger and heavier left ventricle (the main pumping chamber of the heart). This was due to having a bigger cavity and thicker heart muscle. Notably, these differences in heart shape and structure still existed, even after accounting for increased body size.

Importantly, these changes are linked to reduced heart function. Using advanced imaging techniques, we were then able to show subtle but significant impairments in how the left ventricle contracted and relaxed.

Our research has also identified increased stiffness of the left atrium (the chamber that receives blood from the lungs). This feature is often only seen in the early stages of heart disease.

Similar harmful effects are also seen on the right side of the heart, which plays a key role in pumping blood to the lungs – showing that IPED use affects all chambers of the heart.

Most of the participants in our studies had used a median weekly dose of 1108mg for around seven years – a dose consistent with the typical doses used by the bodybuilding community. The higher the dose and the longer these drugs are used are linked with more negative changes in the heart.

The next step of our research is to examine how a typical four to five month drug “cycle” – a period where users progressively increase the dose and number of substances they use to reach a peak in physique or dose – affects heart structure and function. We especially want to know how it affects the way the heart responds during exercise.

We also plan to look at female IPED users, a group that has largely been overlooked in previous research.

Reducing risk starts with stopping IPED use – or avoiding them to begin with. While this is the most effective way to reduce risk, harm-reduction approaches such as reducing dose, avoiding black-market drugs, addressing psychological drivers of use, and regular heart screening may help limit damage and encourage safer choices.

However, we still know very little about whether heart damage improves after cessation, particularly after years of use. To address this, our research group plans to follow a group of users for the next ten to 20 years.

With more than one million IPED users in the UK, this is rapidly becoming a significant public health issue. Raising awareness of the harms of IPED use is critical.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. From bodybuilding to the local gym: how performance-enhancing drugs can damage the heart – https://theconversation.com/from-bodybuilding-to-the-local-gym-how-performance-enhancing-drugs-can-damage-the-heart-273273

February 6, 2026

Bolivia’s ‘capitalism for all’ project sparks backlash for selling-out on natural resources

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Enrique Castañón Ballivián, Lecturer in International Development, UCL

Bolivia’s political landscape has changed dramatically since August 2025, when a general election ended the Movement for Socialism (Mas) party’s rule after nearly two decades. Its presence in Congress has all but vanished, with rightwing parties now commanding an overwhelming majority.

The new president, Rodrigo Paz Pereira, campaigned with the rightwing populist slogan: fé, familia y patria (faith, family and homeland). He swept to victory in large part due to the widespread popularity of his running mate and now vice-president, Edmand Lara.

As the son of former Bolivian president Jaime Paz Zamora, who led Bolivia from 1989 to 1993, Paz Pereira represents a new generation of the country’s traditional political elite. But Lara, a former police captain who has become prominent on social media since 2023, comes from the popular classes.

The unlikely pair benefited from a strong desire among the Bolivian people for change amid a severe economic crisis marked by a shortage of US dollars and annual inflation of nearly 20%. They also took advantage of widespread distrust of reticence towards politicians from previous governments.

In his November inaugural address, Paz Pereira denounced that Mas had left what he called an estado tranca (obstructing state). He pledged to replace it with a smaller, technocratic state capable of attracting foreign investment. This model of state reform is part of his broader neoliberal project of “capitalism for all”, an ill-defined entrepreneurial vision that celebrates informality.

Paz Pereira’s government soon revealed the contours of its economic and political agenda in Decree 5503. The decree included over 100 articles covering numerous issues such as fuel subsidies, taxes, emergency powers, resource governance and fiscal and monetary policy.

The government presented the decree almost exclusively as a measure to end longstanding fossil fuel subsidies. These subsidies, which were introduced in 1997, had become largely unsustainable with the decline of Bolivia’s gas exports since 2017. The decree ended the subsidies, replacing them with modest increments to the minimum salary and state pensions.

Other, more problematic elements of the decree that overlooked established procedures and the stipulations of Bolivia’s constitution were soon exposed. These included measures to grant the government emergency powers without the required justification, as well as major changes to the nationwide tax regime without legislative approval.

The decree also introduced extraordinary powers for the central bank to acquire limitless external debt without mechanisms of democratic control. And it established a “fast track” mechanism for the approval of contracts for the extraction of strategic natural resources. Contracts would be awarded without legislative oversight or the required processes of environmental impact assessment and informed consent of Indigenous people.

Such a “fast track” mechanism openly revived what was known as the entreguista character of the Bolivian state, which had historically been prevalent under elite rule. This is a term used throughout Latin America to criticise governments or policies perceived as giving away a country’s national interests by, for example, surrendering control of natural resources.

Bolivia is home to the world’s largest known lithium deposit in the department of Potosí, estimated at 23 million tonnes. Lithium is a critical component in the batteries that power electric vehicles and smartphones, as well as in high-tech weapons systems. Bolivia is also well-endowed with other critical minerals such as tin, silver and antimony.

Nationalist movements have fiercely opposed entreguista policies in Bolivia before. These movements have inspired major political events, including a revolution in 1952 that overthrew the ruling oligarchy.

They also led to the so-called water and gas wars in 2000 and 2003. These were periods of social unrest arising over government plans to privatise the water supply in the central city of Cochabamba and export natural gas through Chile, respectively.

As noted in 2006 by Tom Perreault, a researcher at Syracuse University in New York, Bolivian people see tin or gas “not only as natural resources, but as national resources as well, that is, resources that properly belong to the nation and its people”.

This sentiment was captured recently by Bolivian researcher Gustavo Calle. In an article published on January 13, he said that by suggesting strategic resources will be exploited by foreign companies without meaningful control, Decree 5503 touched “the most sensitive vein of the popular nationalism”.

Repealing the decree

Two days after the government published the decree on December 17, Bolivia’s main workers’ organisation, the Bolivian Workers’ Centre, declared a general strike. It asked its members to mobilise, demanding the abrogation of the decree.

Then, on January 5, the largest Indigenous organisations joined the protests. They paralysed the country with more than 50 road blockades. And a march named “Bolivia is not for sale” later entered the capital city of La Paz, bringing together numerous sectors of society.

Paz Pereira portrayed the leaders of the mobilisation as reckless individuals defending their own privileges. He also pledged not to back down against “criminals”. But after nearly 28 days of protests, the government finally conceded and abrogated the decree on January 11.

The government’s image has taken a hit. However, unlike the government during the gas war, its legitimacy has not been challenged. That period of unrest ultimately resulted in the resignation of President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada.

Paz Pereira’s defeat is also only partial. The elimination of the fossil fuel subsidies has now been consolidated. And the government is currently preparing a new authoritarian law to sanction road blockages as criminal offences.

In a recent interview with the Financial Times, Paz Pereira also sought to portray the popular opposition to his entreguista policies as being carried out by a mere minority of former Mas leader Evo Morales’ followers.

In the absence of an alternative political project, the new government appears to be in a strong position to impose its agenda. Yet the strength and explosive potential of resource nationalist sentiments in the country should not be discounted.

Enrique Castañón Ballivián does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Bolivia’s ‘capitalism for all’ project sparks backlash for selling-out on natural resources – https://theconversation.com/bolivias-capitalism-for-all-project-sparks-backlash-for-selling-out-on-natural-resources-275009

February 6, 2026

Tariffs might seem manageable now – but they’ll quietly squeeze households later

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Umair Choksy, Senior Lecturer in Management, University of Stirling

For more than a year, major institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO) have been warning that rising tariffs and policy uncertainty would stifle global growth. This is reflected in the ways governments have been deploying tariffs unpredictably. Notably, the US has increasingly deployed threats and sudden tariff swings as tools in broader disputes.

Recent global trade updates from the likes of UN Trade & Development (UNCTAD) suggest this uncertainty is not fading. This reinforces the sense that trade volatility has become a lasting feature in the world economy rather than a temporary shock.

Contrast this unsettling picture with the strength of global trade and economic growth. One WTO report has noted that global trade volumes grew strongly in the first half of 2025, and projects that it will have been even stronger in late 2025. The IMF (International Monetary Fund) similarly notes that the global economy has shown “resilience” to trade shocks, even as the damage from shifting policies is starting to appear in more recent data.

While some interpret this as proof that the global economy can simply shrug off trade shocks, others have issued a warning. The global economy only appears resilient to tariffs; in reality, short-term offsets such as changing suppliers or altering supply chains have masked damage that will surface later through slower growth, higher costs and declining living standards. Over time, this damage will show up in everyday life – in what people pay, how secure their jobs feel, and how far their wages stretch.

My research on resilience in global supply chains has found that it is not something that businesses can achieve once and then forget about. What is happening now is not resilience, but temporary adjustments.

Imagine a supermarket that suddenly faces higher import costs on fruit because of tariffs or trade restrictions. At first, it does not redesign its entire supply network. Instead, it might buy from a different country for a few months or dip into existing stock in warehouses or distribution centres.

But if costs and availability remain in doubt, these temporary fixes stop working. Stock runs out. Emergency suppliers cost more. And when margins are squeezed for long enough, businesses respond by raising prices, freezing hiring, cutting hours, delaying pay rises or shedding jobs altogether. This is why resilience must be understood as a continuous process.

The same logic applies at national level. For countries like the UK, resilience to changing trade conditions means maintaining the ability to adjust repeatedly without exhausting households through ongoing cost-of-living pressures, income volatility and prolonged uncertainty about jobs and pay.

But when politicians interpret trade shocks as short-lived (as happened in the wake of Brexit), they tend to delay intervention. This could be holding back sector-specific support, postponing investment or relying on firms to absorb costs. This shifts the burden down the chain. Businesses protect their margins by passing costs on, and households become the shock-absorbers.

Tariffs and inequality

One lesson from my research is that some regions and communities are far more sensitive to tariffs and trade friction than others. This has the potential to deepen regional inequality, concentrating job losses and price pressures in already vulnerable areas.

For example, London and the south-east are less exposed to the direct impact of tariffs than many other parts of the country because their economies are dominated by services and finance.

Regions with more manufacturing and exports – such as the West Midlands, east of England, Northern Ireland and parts of northern England – rely more heavily on goods that face tariff barriers, such as cars and machinery. This means employment and business incomes can be more directly affected.

Addressing this imbalance requires more than a one-size-fits-all approach to trade policy. I have found that what matters is helping regions (and businesses in those regions) build resilience in ways that match the kind of disruption they face.

In practice, this depends on how often and how hard they are hit by tariffs. In places where trade costs rise repeatedly, businesses need support that helps them to keep operating without cutting jobs or squeezing pay every time costs increase. That means access to finance, help with managing cost pressures, and support that allows employers to retain workers when margins tighten.

In regions where tariff shocks are less frequent but still disruptive (as has happened to the US itself in its trade war with China), businesses need early signals about where pressures are emerging, and government support when costs spike. Without targeted backing, businesses pass costs on in the easiest way possible – through higher prices, delayed wage rises or job losses. When government treats resilience as a national average, it risks overlooking those places where adjusting is hardest and most costly.

Global trade uncertainty is going to continue. As such, policy needs to be designed for endurance rather than optimism. That involves shifting the focus away from short-term trade volumes and towards reducing the pressure of repeated tariff adjustments before they reach households. That means acting earlier in regions and sectors repeatedly exposed to disruption, rather than waiting for rising prices and job losses to hit households.

Umair Choksy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Tariffs might seem manageable now – but they’ll quietly squeeze households later – https://theconversation.com/tariffs-might-seem-manageable-now-but-theyll-quietly-squeeze-households-later-274594

February 6, 2026

The brilliant and bizarre ways birds use their sense of smell – from natural cologne to pest control

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Joey Baxter, PhD Candidate in Biosciences, University of Sheffield

Blue tits sniff out herbs to line their nests with. taviphoto/Shutterstock

When we think about birds, we often picture their colourful plumage: the iridescence of a peacock’s tail or the electric blue flash of a kingfisher. Or we might consider how they use voices, from the song of the nightingale to the coo of a dove or the shriek of a jay.

So it’s easy to imagine that vision and hearing must be the senses these birds use to explore their environment and interact with each other. However, smell is also vital to birds for navigating, foraging and even communicating. Yet this sense is often underestimated or ignored entirely.

Some of the blame for this long-standing underestimation can be assigned to influential 19th century naturalists like John James Audobon, whose early experiments on turkey vultures led him to conclude that they could not smell and must use sight to locate their carcass suppers.

He presented vultures with paintings of dead sheep, which they pecked away at. But when he shrouded putrid carrion with plant material the vultures ignored it. However, later work revealed flaws in Audobon’s research – these birds prefer fresher meat and locate it using scent, even when it is visually obscured.

The turkey vulture’s keen sense of smell was put to use by oil company engineers in 1930s California. Workers were having trouble with leaks along a 42-mile-long natural gas pipeline but noticed that vultures would often congregate around these leaks. Natural gas alone is odourless, but a chemical called ethyl mercaptan is added so humans can detect its distinctive eggy smell at close range. Ethyl mercaptan is also released by decomposing meat, so vultures associate it with food. The engineers used this to their advantage, intentionally pumping through large doses of ethyl mercaptan and observing the vultures to pinpoint and repair leaks.

Image of small round bird with long tail perched on a twig. — Long-tailed tits are known for their family bonds.
SanderMeertinsPhotography/Shutterstock

More recently, research has explored the many ways that birds use their sense of smell in the wild. At the University of Sheffield, I am investigating whether long-tailed tits, a small UK garden bird, might use their sense of smell to recognise family members. Like we humans often help close family with childcare, long-tailed tits will feed chicks belonging to siblings, parents and children during the breeding season. How these little birds identify who is and isn’t a close relative is not entirely clear yet, but their scents may hold the key.

Starlings and blue tits, meanwhile, use scent to seek out aromatic plants such as yarrow, hogweed and elder, which they weave into their nests. The strong-smelling compounds in these plants defend their chicks against parasites, in the same way that we might use citronella to ward off mosquitoes.

Bird with big fluffy crest feeding chicks in tree. — Hoopoe chicks have a distinct pong.
Piotr Krzeslak/Shutterstock

Hoopoe chicks manufacture their own chemical defences. These are colourful birds with a long, curved bill and a distinctive orange crown of feathers. Young hoopoes produce a thick, dark, foul-smelling substance called preen oil from a gland just above their tail that contains bacteria. These beneficial bacteria break the preen oil down into pungent chemicals that keep germs at bay.

New Zealand’s national icon, the flightless kiwi, is mostly nocturnal and feeds on worms and insects found underground, so cannot rely on vision when foraging. Instead, kiwis have nostrils at the very tip of their long bills, which they probe the earth with to sniff out their subterranean prey.

Small fluffy bird with long beak, — Kiwi birds have nostrils at the end of their bills.
Mastak80/Shutterstock

Crested auklets are small, black seabirds that smell like tangerines. This odour is produced by special feathers and is involved in social communication. Both male and female auklets will rub their bills into the nape of another bird’s neck to get a good whiff, using this smell to assess their quality as a potential mate. So, it pays to produce a good strong dose of this natural cologne.

Petrels and shearwaters fly across hundreds of kilometres of open ocean in search of sustenance, using their sense of smell to detect dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a chemical produced by phytoplankton (microscopic plant-like organisms). The odour of this chemical, often compared to that of boiled cabbage, signals where in the sea is likely to be rich with food. Additionally, the varying intensity of this chemical allows them to create an olfactory map in their heads for navigating back to their nests on land.

Black birds with crest and orange beak perch on rock. — Can anyone else smell tangerine?
tryton2011/Shutterstock

Sadly, this impressive olfactory ability can land these birds in trouble. Ocean plastic causes blooms of phytoplankton, which pump DMS into the air in unusual quantities. Seabirds can be confused by these chemicals that are usually associated with food and will often consume the plastic, which can be fatal. Because of their reliance on scent for foraging, DMS-sensitive birds, which also include albatrosses, are nearly six times more likely than other species to ingest plastic.

Like birds, humans have been historically underappreciated when it comes to smell. An idea that – again – largely stems from the pontifications of 19th century scientists.

Humans, however, are sensitive to an enormous range of odours. One experiment showed that, when blindfolded, human participants could track the scent of chocolate across a field. We use our sense of smell all the time in our daily lives – sometimes without fully realising it – in avoiding danger (noticing the smell of smoke), selecting food (passing up off milk or picking a particularly ripe orange) or even choosing a partner. Research suggests people are often drawn to the odour of those with a very different set of immune genes to their own.

So, even for animals that don’t have a dominant sense of smell, odours form a key part of the way they interact with the world.

Joey Baxter receives funding from UK Research & Innovation (UKRI), via the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC).

– ref. The brilliant and bizarre ways birds use their sense of smell – from natural cologne to pest control – https://theconversation.com/the-brilliant-and-bizarre-ways-birds-use-their-sense-of-smell-from-natural-cologne-to-pest-control-274571

February 6, 2026

How diverse voices are transforming the UN’s climate science

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Hannah Cloke, Professor of Hydrology, University of Reading

An environmental expert from Nigeria, a climate policy consultant from Kenya, an oceanographer from Indonesia and an Indigenous social development specialist from the Philippines will are among dozens of experts in the UK this month as the UN’s top climate body meets to rewrite the the rules for compiling the world’s most important climate reports.

The workshops at the University of Reading from February 10 to 12 will lay the groundwork for bringing diverse knowledge into the next report by the UN climate science body, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The seventh assessment report, known as AR7, will be published in 2028 and finalised the following year.

There are two big themes under discussion. One workshop examines how artificial intelligence (AI) tools can help scientists review growing volumes of climate research. AI is revolutionising scientific research, with its ability to conduct faster analysis of complex data than traditional computer models. AI weather and climate models are already becoming integrated into the information provided through meteorological services such as the Met Office.

Another workshop explores how Indigenous and local knowledge can be integrated into these assessments alongside standard scientific findings. For decades, IPCC reports have been built primarily on peer-reviewed scientific papers from academic institutions, mostly in the world’s wealthier nations. These workshops explore how to better include Indigenous knowledge, local observations and expertise from communities that are experiencing climate change first hand.

This could not come at a more important time. A few weeks ago, the US withdrew its participation from the IPCC process. Now, a new cadre of experts from across the world are coming to the UK to make climate science more inclusive and AR7 preparation continues with 195 member countries. The work goes on, but the US absence leaves gaps in emissions reporting and funding.

graphic with colourful background, people of all races holding hands — Indigenous knowledge is being integrated into the UN’s climate reports.
melitas/Shutterstock

Credible, yet unconventional

Bringing in diverse voices is essential to the report’s success. If IPCC reports reflect only one way of understanding the world, they can miss crucial insights. As other sectors have found again and again, a lack of diversity in the workforce leads to a lack of insight. The environment sector remains one of the least diverse, with only 3.5% of people working in environmental jobs identifying as being from an ethnic minority. Diverse voices and critical discussions are key to making robust, inclusive and future-proof decisions.

Through my work developing flood forecasting systems across Africa, Asia and Latin America, I’ve learned this directly. After Cyclone Idai hit Mozambique in 2019, the Global Flood Awareness System, a service that provides openly accessible information about upcoming floods across the world, was used to help target relief where it was most needed.

In Uganda, working with the humanitarian agency Uganda Red Cross and the Red Cross Climate Centre, our forecasts helped 5,000 people evacuate before roads were cut. In Bangladesh’s river basins, improving forecasts meant understanding how communities interpret flood risk. In Kenya, choosing the right forecasting approach required learning from the people who have lived with these rivers for generations.

Climate science has traditionally valued certain types of expertise. Peer-reviewed papers and university credentials do matter. But expertise also comes from generations of farmers building up understanding of local weather patterns or Indigenous knowledge about the land, forests and rivers. Scientific models, combined with community knowledge, produce better outcomes than either alone.

For the result of its latest report to be credible, the IPCC needs the best evidence from all sources, because that is what produces the best science.

Hannah Cloke advises the Environment Agency, the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts, the Copernicus Emergency Management Service, local and national governments and humanitarian agencies on the forecasting and warning of natural hazards. She is a member of the UKRI Natural Environment Research Council and a fellow of the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts. Her research is funded by the UKRI Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council, the UKRI Natural Environment Research Council, the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office and the European Commission.

– ref. How diverse voices are transforming the UN’s climate science – https://theconversation.com/how-diverse-voices-are-transforming-the-uns-climate-science-275259

February 6, 2026

CAN 2025 de football : pourquoi la CAF a sévi contre le Sénégal et le Maroc

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Professeur Abdoulaye Sakho, Professeur de droit, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar

La finale de la Coupe d’Afrique des nations (CAN) 2025 (21 décembre – 18 janvier) a basculé dans la la controverse dans les dernières minutes du match. Le penalty litigieux, le match interrompu, l’envahissement de la zone VAR (contrôle vidéo), l’usage de lasers dans les tribunes et les affrontements entre supporters sénégalais et policiers marocains ont marqué l’épilogue du tournoi. Quelques jours plus tard, les sanctions tombent sont tombées contre les fédérations du Sénégal et du Maroc.

Dans cet entretien, Abdoulaye Sakho, spécialiste en droit du sport, décrypte les infractions retenues, le fonctionnement indépendant du jury disciplinaire et pourquoi cette finale pourrait marquer un tournant dans la gouvernance du football africain.

Pourquoi les deux fédérations du Sénégal et du Maroc ont-elles été sanctionnées ?

Les deux fédérations ont été sanctionnées parce que le jury disciplinaire a estimé que chacune d’elles a été coupable d’infractions aux lois du jeu et au code disciplinaire en vigueur.

Le football, en tant qu’activité sportive, repose sur un ensemble de normes qui encadrent à la fois l’organisation des acteurs et leurs comportements sur et en dehors du terrain. Ces normes sont définies par des textes communs à toutes les organisations affiliées à la FIFA,

C’est en ce sens qu’il existe des textes de base qui sont communs à la totalité des organisations sportives qui relèvent de la FIFA. Parmi ces textes, je peux citer le code disciplinaire, le code éthique et le code électoral. Ces textes précisent non seulement les comportements attendus, mais aussi la nature des infractions, les sanctions applicables et le fonctionnement des instances chargées de trancher les litiges disciplinaires.

S’agissant des mesures prises contre les deux fédérations et les joueurs, elles relèvent de sanctions disciplinaires rendues par le jury compétent conformément au code de discipline.

Le comportement des acteurs du football lors d’une rencontre est également défini par les Lois du jeu de l’International Football Association Board (IFAB)
(l’organisme international chargé de définir et faire évoluer les règles du jeu), ainsi que par le code de discipline. Ces deux textes prévoient les infractions et les sanctions, ainsi que l’organisation et le fonctionnement des autorités responsables du règlement des litiges.

Concernant les infractions disciplinaires, comme toutes les autorités juridictionnelles de la Confédération africaine de football (CAF), le jury qui en traite est indépendant. Il est composé de personnalités indépendantes qui ne sont pas membres de la CAF.

Quelles sont les principales sanctions ?

Les deux fédérations ont été sanctionnées parce que le jury disciplinaire a estimé qu’elles étaient responsables d’infractions aux lois du jeu et au code disciplinaire en vigueur. La décision du jury disciplinaire comporte deux volets. Il y a d’abord des sanctions sportives à l’encontre des fédérations marocaine et sénégalaise, et de certains joueurs et officiels pour violations avérées du Code disciplinaire de la CAF. Ensuite, il y a le rejet de la réclamation introduite par la fédération royale marocaine de football (FRMF) qui plaidait un forfait technique du Sénégal. Autrement dit, selon la prétention marocaine devant le jury, fondée les articles 82 et 84 du règlement de la CAN le Sénégal devait perdre le match sur un score de trois à zéro (3-0).

Cette distinction est importante. Le rejet de la requête du Maroc constitue une qualification non retenue, distincte des faits qui ont servi de base aux sanctions retenues contre le Sénégal.

Pour le Sénégal, les sanctions reposent sur les infractions suivantes :

• comportement antisportif, violation des principes de fair-play et d’intégrité, et atteinte à l’image du football ;

• comportement antisportif envers l’arbitre ;

• comportement inapproprié de supporters ayant porté atteinte à l’image du football ;

• comportement antisportif des joueurs et de l’encadrement technique en violation des principes de fair-play, de loyauté et d’intégrité ;

• faute disciplinaire de l’équipe nationale, cinq joueurs ayant reçu des avertissements.

Ainsi, le sélectionneur Pape Bouna Thiaw a écopé d’une suspension de cinq matchs et d’une amende de 100 000 de dollars. Les joueurs Ilimane Ndiaye et Ismaïla Sarr sont suspendus deux matchs pour comportement antisportif envers l’arbitre. La FSF est en outre sanctionnée par trois amendes totalisant 615 000 USD pour le comportement de ses supporters, de ses joueurs, de l’encadrement technique et pour une faute disciplinaire collective liée aux avertissements reçus.

Du coté marocain, les sanctions reposent sur :

• des comportement antisportifs ;

• des comportements inappropriés des ramasseurs de balles du stade ;

• des comportement inappropriés des joueurs de l’équipe nationale et de l’encadrement technique, ayant envahi la zone d’examen de la VAR et entravé le travail de l’arbitre, en violation des articles 82 et 83 du Code disciplinaire de la CAF ;

• l’utilisation de lasers par ses supporters lors du match.

Par conséquent, Achraf Hakimi est suspendu deux matchs, dont un avec sursis, et Ismaël Saibari trois matchs, assortis d’une amende de 100 000 USD pour ce dernier. La FRMF est condamnée à 315 000 de dollars d’amendes pour le comportement des ramasseurs de balles, l’intrusion de joueurs et de membres du staff dans la zone VAR, et l’usage de lasers par des supporters.

Ces sanctions sont-elles en cohérence avec les décisions habituelles de la CAF et auront-elles des effets concrets ?

En matière disciplinaire, chaque situation présente des spécificités qui rendent délicate toute comparaison avec des décisions antérieures. Il faut aussi rappeler qu’il ne s’agit pas d’une décision de la CAF en tant que telle, mais de l’exercice du pouvoir juridictionnel souverain d’un jury indépendant et de la sensibilité de celui-ci aux objectifs généralement attendus des sanctions juridiques. En droit, des sanctions jouent une triple fonction : punition des coupables, réparation des dommages causés aux victimes et dissuasion pour toute autre personne qui serait tentée de refaire la même infraction.

À cette étape de la procédure, il n’est pas aisé de se prononcer d’un point de vue scientifique. À mon avis, il appartient aux concernés, en fonction de leur perception de la réglementation, d’apprécier si ces sanctions sont ou non en phase avec ce que fait d’habitude le jury, si ces sanctions sont ou non « justes » à leurs yeux.

Par ailleurs, le dispositif disciplinaire prévoit le double degré de juridiction. Les parties sont donc libres de voir ou non si elles doivent aller en appel vers la commission de recours, une commission elle aussi indépendante, composée de personnalités indépendantes. La procédure peut même être poursuivie jusqu’au Tribunal arbitral du sport (TAS). D’ailleurs la fédération marocaine a déjà fait appel.

Quelles conséquences ces sanctions pourraient-elles avoir sur l’avenir des compétitions africaines ?

Il s’agit de sanctions que certains ont considérées comme sévères pendant que d’autres ont dit qu’il s’agit de compromis politique. Au-delà des sanctions, c’est le déroulement de cette CAN, le film de la finale et de son dénouement qui pourraient avoir des répercussions sur le futur du football africain et sur la gouvernance de la CAF. La CAN a révélé une absence de lisibilité de l’information où les récits diffusés sur les réseaux sociaux ont pris le pas sur ceux des journalistes.

Qu’on le veuille ou non quelque chose s’est produit en mondovision relativement à la gestion des matchs de football en Afrique.

Des réformes semblent attendues. Le président de la CAF, Patrice Motsepe, a annoncé plusieurs réformes visant à renforcer le cadre réglementaire et institutionnel de l’organisation.

Il a évoqué notamment une révision du code disciplinaire pour “garantir que les organes judiciaires de la CAF disposent de pouvoirs suffisants pour infliger des sanctions appropriées et dissuasives”. Il a aussi réitéré son engagement à veiller à ce que “les opérateurs VAR et les commissaires de match soient perçus, respectés et reconnus comme impartiaux, équitables et de niveau mondial.”

En tous les cas, une fois le chapitre débat autour des sanctions et
des recours clôturés, le football africain devrait ouvrir, de manière concertée et inclusive, le débat sur les réformes nécessaires pour préserver l’esprit sportif du jeu que l’Afrique conçoit de plus en plus comme une activité économique porteuse de croissance et de développement.

Professeur Abdoulaye Sakho does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. CAN 2025 de football : pourquoi la CAF a sévi contre le Sénégal et le Maroc – https://theconversation.com/can-2025-de-football-pourquoi-la-caf-a-sevi-contre-le-senegal-et-le-maroc-274823