Les pressions de Donald Trump sur la Fed annoncent-elles la fin du dollar ?

Source: The Conversation – France (in French) – By Vanessa Strauss-Kahn, Professeure d’économie, ESCP Business School

Le président des États-Unis Donald Trump, multiplie les critiques contre la banque centrale, Federal Reserve, trop timorée à ses yeux. Derrière d’évidents conflits d’intérêt à court terme, Trump pourrait bien remettre en cause la crédibilité de la Fed, un des piliers de la puissance mondiale du dollar.


Depuis quelques semaines, la Maison Blanche intensifie ses critiques à l’encontre de la banque centrale des États-Unis (Federal Reserve, Fed). Ces remarques répétées suscitent des interrogations sur le respect de l’indépendance de la Fed et, plus encore, de fortes inquiétudes sur la stabilité macroéconomique et financière des États-Unis.

Les prises de position du président Trump sur la politique monétaire de la Fed ne sont pas nouvelles. Le 19 juillet 2018, il exprimait déjà son désaccord avec la politique des taux d’intérêt menée par la banque centrale. Il rompait ainsi avec la tradition qui voulait que l’exécutif s’abstienne de commenter afin de préserver l’indépendance de la Fed et de maintenir la confiance des marchés financiers. À l’époque, ses éclats semblaient surtout médiatiques. Mais aujourd’hui, Trump 2 paraît engager une remise en cause plus structurelle de l’architecture économique et financière, appelant à une attention particulière.

Stimuler la croissance à tout prix

Depuis son retour à la Maison Blanche, Trump exige une baisse des taux pour stimuler la croissance. Il intensifie ses attaques contre la Fed. Après avoir critiqué le maintien du taux directeur le 18 mars 2025, menacé de limoger Jerome Powell le 17 avril dernier, puis multiplié les insultes publiques, il a exigé le 20 août la démission de Lisa Cook, une des sept gouverneurs de la Fed. La nomination de nouveaux membres permettrait à l’exécutif de modifier l’équilibre des votes et d’infléchir la politique monétaire.




À lire aussi :
À quoi sert l’indépendance des banques centrales ?


Le Federal Reserve Act de 1913 autorise la révocation d’un gouverneur « pour motif valable » (faute grave, manquement ou incapacité). Cette disposition, jamais utilisée, reste juridiquement incertaine. La tentative de destitution, rejetée en première instance, le 16 septembre 2025, a donc suscité de fortes inquiétudes des économistes, médias et marchés financiers sur l’indépendance de la Fed et la politisation de la politique monétaire.

Or, l’indépendance des banques centrales est la clé de voûte de la stabilité monétaire. Le Système de la réserve fédérale, créé en 1914 pour répondre aux paniques bancaires du XIXe siècle, a été conçu pour protéger la banque centrale des pressions politiques. Cette autonomie a été consolidée par le Banking Act de 1935 et par l’accord de 1951 avec le Trésor.

Outil de lutte contre l’inflation

Cette indépendance est aussi un instrument essentiel de lutte contre l’inflation. Sans elle, un gouvernement pourrait chercher à financer ses déficits en poussant la banque centrale à créer davantage de monnaie ou à abaisser ses taux. Ces politiques stimuleraient artificiellement la demande, gonfleraient la masse monétaire et provoqueraient une hausse des prix, entraînant in fine une dépréciation de la monnaie.

L’histoire a montré les effets d’un manque d’indépendance des banques centrales. Dans l’Allemagne des années 1920, la Reichsbank, sous contrôle de l’État, finançait déficits et réparations de guerre par création monétaire, provoquant l’hyperinflation de 1923. On retrouve des mécanismes similaires au Zimbabwe (2007–2009), au Venezuela (2010–2020) et, plus récemment, en Turquie, où les pressions politiques sur la banque centrale ont alimenté une inflation durable.

Les bases académiques de cette indépendance sont en revanche plus récentes. Dans les années 1970, Kydland et Prescott (1977), puis Barro et Gordon (1982), ont montré que, sans autonomie ni mandats crédibles, les politiques monétaires perdent leur efficacité et nourrissent des anticipations inflationnistes persistantes.

L’importance de la crédibilité

Les agents économiques tiennent compte du degré d’indépendance de la banque centrale. Quand celle-ci perd en crédibilité, ils doutent de sa capacité à respecter son mandat – maintenir une inflation modérée, fixée à 2 % pour la Fed. Résultat : face à un déficit budgétaire croissant, ils s’attendent à plus d’inflation, augmentent leurs prix par anticipation et enclenchent un cercle autoréalisateur qui alimente la hausse générale des prix.

De nombreuses études empiriques confirment le lien entre indépendance des banques centrales et faible inflation, comme l’ont montré Grilli, Masciandaro et Tabellini (1991), Alesina et Summers (1993) ou encore Bodea et Hicks (2015). Et la question reste d’actualité. En 2024, le Fonds monétaire international (FMI) a publié un nouvel indice mesurant l’indépendance des banques centrales, qui devrait alimenter de nouvelles recherches et débats.

En résumé, sans indépendance, une banque centrale perd sa crédibilité – et, avec elle, sa capacité à maîtriser l’inflation.

Baisse des taux

Le souhait du président Trump de voir baisser les taux d’intérêt directeurs s’est en partie concrétisé, le 17 septembre 2025 (baisse des taux d’un quart de point), Powell répondant ainsi aux mauvais résultats du marché du travail américain (le chômage atteignant 4,3 % en août 2025, son plus haut niveau depuis octobre 2021, BLS, 2025). Cette baisse des taux directeurs sur fond de ralentissement économique est en accord avec le double mandat de la Fed ; c’est-à-dire, maîtriser l’inflation et favoriser une économie proche du plein emploi.

Mettra-t-elle fin aux attaques contre l’indépendance de la Fed ? Peu probable. En effet, en juillet, le président annonçait vouloir une baisse de 300 points de base (soit passer d’un taux directeur de 4 % à 1 %). Une réduction drastique jamais mise en œuvre en une seule fois et historiquement intervenue seulement lors de périodes de profondes récessions, comme, par exemple, en 2007-2008.

Un lien dangereux entre l’exécutif et la Fed

L’indépendance de la Fed pourrait également être fragilisée par la récente nomination par Trump de Stephen Miran (actuel président du Conseil des conseillers économiques, Council of Economic Advisers, CEA) au siège vacant du Conseil des gouverneurs de la banque centrale. Celui-ci a indiqué qu’il ne démissionnerait pas de ses fonctions au CEA, mais prendrait un congé sans solde – créant ainsi un lien institutionnel inédit entre la Fed et l’exécutif. De par la loi, un gouverneur, nommé par le président et confirmé par le Sénat, ne peut occuper un autre poste dans l’appareil de l’État, évitant ainsi des conflits d’intérêt.

Par ailleurs, Miran, comme Trump, défend une politique d’affaiblissement du dollar, qualifiée d’« accord de Mar-a-Lago ». Une baisse significative des taux directeurs entraînerait une diminution des rendements de la dette souveraine américaine et de sa valeur en devises étrangères réduisant ainsi son attractivité pour les investisseurs étrangers alors que 30,2 % du stock de la dette émise par le Trésor américain est détenu par des investisseurs internationaux, (Congressional Research Service).

France 24, septembre 2025.

Un système financier en voie de fragilisation

Outre sa mission de politique monétaire, la Fed est également chargée de veiller à la stabilité financière, de superviser le secteur bancaire et de garantir le bon fonctionnement des systèmes de paiement. Or, plusieurs annonces de la Maison Blanche suscitent des inquiétudes quant à la solidité de l’architecture financière internationale et à la stabilité du système bancaire américain (CEPR, 2025).

Le 18 février 2025, un décret présidentiel a lancé une refonte des fonctions de réglementation et de supervision bancaires exercées par la Fed (Maison Blanche, 2025). Un assouplissement de ces réglementations pourrait conduire les banques à pratiquer des ratios de levier (actifs totaux rapportés au capital) trop élevés, comme avant la crise de 2008. La stabilité du système bancaire se verrait compromise.

En août 1971, lorsque le président Nixon annonça la suspension de la convertibilité du dollar en or, son secrétaire au Trésor John B. Connally prononça cette phrase restée célèbre :

« Le dollar est notre monnaie, mais c’est votre problème. »

Les décisions récentes de la Maison Blanche ravivent l’actualité de cette déclaration. Le dollar joue un rôle primordial dans l’architecture financière internationale. Si ce rôle confère aux États-Unis un « privilège exorbitant » (Eichengreen, 2011), il repose sur la confiance internationale dans la stabilité de l’économie et des institutions américaines.

Une intensification des tensions commerciales et financières pourrait éroder cette confiance, incitant banques centrales et investisseurs internationaux – notamment la Chine – à diversifier davantage leurs réserves de change et investissements vers d’autres devises ou monnaies numériques. Un tel mouvement fragiliserait le dollar. Il deviendrait alors aussi un problème américain.

The Conversation

Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.

ref. Les pressions de Donald Trump sur la Fed annoncent-elles la fin du dollar ? – https://theconversation.com/les-pressions-de-donald-trump-sur-la-fed-annoncent-elles-la-fin-du-dollar-265784

De 1992 à 2022, la laborieuse intégration de l’agriculture aux négociations climatiques

Source: The Conversation – France (in French) – By Marie Hrabanski, chercheuse en sociologie politique, politiques internationales et nationales de l’adaptation de l’agriculture au changement cliamtique, Cirad

À l’échelle mondiale, les systèmes agricoles, alimentaires et forestiers produisent plus du tiers des émissions de gaz à effet de serre, contribuant ainsi au changement climatique de façon significative. Pourtant, l’agriculture n’a été intégrée que tardivement aux négociations des COP sur le climat. Entre enjeux d’adaptation, d’atténuation et de sécurité alimentaire, les avancées restent timides. De récentes initiatives essaient toutefois de mieux intégrer les systèmes agricoles et alimentaires à l’agenda climatique mondial.

Nous reproduisons ci-dessous la première partie consacrée à ces questions du chapitre 2 (« De 1992 à 2022, la difficile mise à l’agenda de l’agriculture dans les négociations sur le climat ») de _l’Agriculture et les systèmes alimentaires du monde face au changement climatique. Enjeux pour les Suds, publié en juin 2025 par les éditions Quae, sous la coordination scientifique de Vincent Blanfort, Julien Demenois et Marie Hrabanski (librement accessible en e-book).


Depuis 1992 et la signature de la Convention-cadre des Nations unies sur les changements climatiques (CCNUCC), les gouvernements ou parties se rassemblent chaque année au sein des Conférences des parties (COP) pour orienter et opérationnaliser les engagements des États face au changement climatique.

L’agriculture a longtemps été absente de ces négociations qui, jusqu’à la fin des années 1990, se sont focalisées sur l’atténuation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES). Pourtant, les systèmes agricoles et alimentaires sont particulièrement émetteurs de GES, et à la fois « victimes » et « solutions » face au changement climatique.

À partir des années 2010, les questions agricoles puis alimentaires intègrent progressivement l’agenda international du climat. Les États sont chargés de mettre en œuvre les actions climatiques pour l’agriculture et l’alimentation, qui sont détaillées dans leurs engagements climatiques nationaux que sont les contributions déterminées au niveau national (CDN ou NDC en anglais).

En 2020, plus de 90 % de ces contributions nationalement déterminées incluaient l’adaptation au changement climatique et faisaient de l’agriculture un secteur prioritaire, et environ 80 % d’entre elles identifiaient des objectifs d’atténuation du changement climatique dans le secteur agricole.[…]

Les insuffisances du protocole de Kyoto

Les articles 2 et 4 de la convention (CCNUCC) adoptée en 1992 évoquent le lien entre les changements climatiques et l’agriculture. Toutefois, les enjeux sont focalisés sur l’atténuation, par le biais notamment des négociations sur le cadre REDD+ (réduction des émissions dues à la déforestation et à la dégradation des forêts), qui ont abouti en 2013 à Varsovie après plusieurs années de discussions très laborieuses et clivantes, notamment entre pays développés et pays en développement.




À lire aussi :
Crédits carbone et déforestation évitée : impact réel ou risque de greenwashing ?


Le protocole de Kyoto, adopté en 1997, fait référence à l’agriculture et aux forêts, en soulignant que le secteur de l’utilisation des terres, du changement d’affectation des terres et de la foresterie (UTCATF) peut constituer une source de GES.

Ce protocole fixait des objectifs ambitieux de réduction des émissions uniquement pour les pays industrialisés (dits « annexe I »), dans un fonctionnement top-down, contrairement à l’accord de Paris. Il couvrait le méthane et le protoxyde d’azote, principaux gaz émis par le secteur agricole, et établissait des niveaux de référence forestiers à respecter.

Ce mode de travail a toutefois montré ses limites, avec notamment les États-Unis qui n’ont pas ratifié ce protocole et le Canada qui en est sorti. En application de ce protocole, deux mécanismes de certification de projets de compensation carbone ont été développés : le mécanisme de mise en œuvre conjointe (Moc) et le mécanisme de développement propre (MDP), au sein desquels les secteurs agricoles et forestiers ne seront pas intégrés avant le milieu des années 2000.

Il faut attendre la COP17 de Durban, en 2011 (voir figure ci-dessous), pour que l’agriculture soit appréhendée comme un problème global, en étant à la fois cadré comme un enjeu d’atténuation et une question d’adaptation au changement climatique.

Les questions agricoles dans les négociations climatiques entre 1992 et 2023.

En effet, à la suite de la mobilisation d’acteurs hétérogènes en faveur de la notion de climate-smart agriculture et dans un contexte politique renouvelé, l’agriculture est intégrée à l’ordre du jour officiel de l’organe de la COP chargé des questions scientifiques et techniques (SBSTA, Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice). Cinq ateliers auront lieu entre 2013 et 2016.

La FAO a promu la climate-smart agriculture, ou l’agriculture climato-intelligente, dès la fin des années 2000. Cette notion vise à traiter trois objectifs principaux :

  • l’augmentation durable de la productivité et des revenus agricoles (sécurité alimentaire) ;

  • l’adaptation et le renforcement de la résilience face aux impacts des changements climatiques (adaptation) ;

  • et la réduction et/ou la suppression des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (l’atténuation), le cas échéant.)




À lire aussi :
Les sept familles de l’agriculture durable


Quelle place pour l’agriculture dans l’accord de Paris ?

Pourtant, s’il y a bien une journée consacrée à l’agriculture pendant la COP21 en 2015 en parallèle des négociations, l’accord de Paris aborde uniquement l’agriculture sous l’angle de la sécurité alimentaire et de la vulnérabilité des systèmes de production alimentaire.

Les écosystèmes agricoles et forestiers sont uniquement couverts par l’article 5 de l’accord de Paris, qui souligne l’importance de préserver et de renforcer les puits de carbone naturels et qui met en lumière des outils comme les paiements basés sur des résultats REDD+ et le mécanisme conjoint pour l’atténuation et l’adaptation des forêts (Joint Mitigation and Adaptation Mechanism for the Integral and Sustainable Management of Forests, ou JMA).

Une étape importante est franchie en 2017, avec la création de l’action commune de Koronivia (KJWA). Les ateliers se font maintenant en coopération avec les organes constitués au titre de la convention, par exemple le Fonds vert pour le climat. Les observateurs, dont les ONG et la recherche, participent également aux ateliers.

De 2018 à 2021, sept ateliers sont organisés (sur les méthodes d’évaluation de l’adaptation, les ressources en eau, le carbone du sol, etc.) et permettent à tous les États et parties prenantes (stakeholders) de partager leurs points de vue sur différents enjeux agricoles.

L’accélération de l’agenda climatique va dans le même temps permettre, pendant la COP26 de Glasgow, de prendre en charge la question des émissions de méthane, dont près de 40 % sont d’origine agricole, selon l’IEA (International Energy Agency).

Réunion ministérielle sur le Global Methane Pledge lors de la COP28 en 2023.
Ryan Lim/Commission européenne, CC BY

Un « engagement mondial » (Global Methane Pledge) a été lancé en 2021 par l’Union européenne (UE) et les États-Unis, avec pour objectif de réduire les émissions mondiales de méthane de 30 % d’ici à 2030 par rapport à 2020. Il regroupe aujourd’hui 158 pays, sans toutefois que la Chine, l’Inde et la Russie figurent parmi les signataires.

Les points de blocage identifiés à l’issue des COP26 et COP27

En 2022, l’action commune de Koronivia arrivait à son terme. L’analyse des soumissions faites par les pays et les observateurs, dont la recherche, met en évidence la pluralité des façons de penser le lien entre les questions agricoles et les questions climatiques, ce qui va se traduire notamment par de fortes tensions entre des pays du Nord et des pays du Sud dans les négociations lors de la COP27 de Charm el-Cheikh en Égypte (2022).

Trois principaux points de blocage ont pu être identifiés entre différents pays des
Nords et des Suds. D’autres clivages sont également apparus, permettant ainsi de relativiser l’existence d’un Nord global et d’un Sud global qui s’opposeraient nécessairement.

Le premier a trait à l’utilisation du terme atténuation dans le texte de la décision de la COP. En effet, si toutes les parties étaient d’accord pour que figure dans le texte l’importance de l’adaptation de l’agriculture au changement climatique, l’Inde, soutenue par d’autres pays émergents restés plus en retrait, s’est montrée particulièrement réticente à voir apparaître aussi le terme atténuation.

Pour ce grand pays agricole, les enjeux d’atténuation ne doivent pas entraver la sécurité alimentaire des pays en développement et émergents. À quelques heures de la clôture des négociations, l’Inde a accepté que le terme atténuation figure dans la décision de la COP3/CP27, créant « l’initiative quadriennale commune de Charm el-Cheikh sur la mise en œuvre d’une action climatique pour l’agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire ».

Cet épisode montre à quel point il n’est pas acquis de penser en synergie les enjeux d’adaptation et d’atténuation pour de nombreux pays émergents et du Sud.

Un second point de blocage concernait la création d’une structure permanente affectée aux enjeux agricoles dans la CCNUCC. Cette demande, qui reste un point d’achoppement dans les négociations, est principalement portée par les pays du G77, même si des divergences notables existent entre les propositions faites.

Enfin, on peut identifier un enjeu lié à la place des systèmes alimentaires dans l’action climatique. Pour nombre de pays européens et émergents, la réflexion doit être faite à l’échelle des systèmes alimentaires : nos pratiques alimentaires dépendent étroitement des modes de production des produits agricoles, et une approche prenant en compte l’amont avec la production des intrants et l’éventuelle déforestation, et l’aval, avec le transport, le refroidissement, la transformation, et donc également les pertes et les gaspillages et les régimes alimentaires, est plus à même de permettre l’émergence de solutions gagnantes à tous niveaux.

Toutefois, d’un côté, le groupe Afrique préférait se focaliser sur le secteur agricole, une question déjà complexe à instruire. De l’autre côté, certains pays du Nord et aux économies en transition refusaient de voir apparaître le terme système alimentaire, l’hypothèse la plus probable étant la crainte de remettre en question la surconsommation de viande, la déforestation, ou encore le commerce, ce qu’ils souhaitent impérativement éviter.

Le terme système alimentaire a donc été rejeté dans le texte de l’initiative quadriennale commune de Charm el-Cheikh.




À lire aussi :
Climat : nos systèmes alimentaires peuvent devenir plus efficaces, plus résilients et plus justes


Les timides avancées de Charm el-Cheikh

Malgré ces points de tensions, l’initiative quadriennale commune de Charm el-Cheikh sur la mise en œuvre d’une action climatique pour l’agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire a été adoptée et cette décision de COP3/CP27 marque donc une étape décisive dans les négociations.

On notera tout de même que ce texte ne promeut ni l’agroécologie, qui aurait ouvert la voie à une refonte holistique des systèmes agricoles, ni l’agriculture climato-intelligente (climate-smart agriculture), davantage tournée vers les solutions technologiques. Aucun objectif chiffré de réduction des émissions de GES agricoles n’est discuté dans les COP ; aucune pratique n’a été encouragée ou stigmatisée (utilisation massive d’intrants chimiques, etc.).

La présidence émirienne de la COP28 a ensuite mis en haut de l’agenda politique cette question, en proposant la Déclaration sur l’agriculture durable, les systèmes alimentaires résilients et l’action climatique, signée par 160 pays.

Elle appelle les pays qui la rejoignent à renforcer la place des systèmes agricoles et alimentaires dans les contributions déterminées au niveau national et dans les plans nationaux d’adaptation et relatifs à la biodiversité.


Éditions Quae, 2025

Dans la foulée de la COP28, la FAO a proposé une feuille de route qui établit 120 mesures (dont des mesures dites agroécologiques) et étapes clés dans dix domaines pour l’adaptation et l’atténuation pour les systèmes agricoles et alimentaires. Elle vise à réduire de 25 % les émissions d’origine agricole et alimentaire, pour atteindre la neutralité carbone à l’horizon 2035, et à transformer d’ici 2050 ces systèmes en puits de carbone capturant 1,5 Gt de GES par an.

En définitive, l’initiative de Charm el-Cheikh portait sur l’agriculture et non pas sur les systèmes alimentaires, mais a donné lieu à un atelier, en juin 2025, sur les approches systémiques et holistiques en agriculture et dans les systèmes alimentaires, et le forum du Standing Committee on Finance de 2025 portera sur l’agriculture et les systèmes alimentaires durables. Le sujet fait donc son chemin dans les enceintes de la CCNUCC.


Ce chapitre a été écrit par Marie Hrabanski, Valérie Dermaux, Alexandre K. Magnan, Adèle Tanguy, Anaïs Valance et Roxane Moraglia.

The Conversation

Marie Hrabanski est membre du champ thématique stratégique du CIRAD sur le changement climatique et a reçu des financements de l’ANR APIICC (Evaluation des Plans et Instruments d’Innovation Institutionnelle pour lutter contre le changement climatique).

ref. De 1992 à 2022, la laborieuse intégration de l’agriculture aux négociations climatiques – https://theconversation.com/de-1992-a-2022-la-laborieuse-integration-de-lagriculture-aux-negociations-climatiques-265335

Du slip troué aux sachets de thé, quelques indicateurs pour mesurer la santé des sols

Source: The Conversation – France (in French) – By Coline Deveautour, Enseignante-Chercheuse en Ecologie microbienne des sols, UniLaSalle

Le test du slip est très simple à interpréter : plus le slip retrouvé sera troué, plus le sol sera en bonne santé. Gabriela Braendle/Agroscope

Du slip en coton aux sachets de thé enterrés, de l’analyse chimique en laboratoire aux espèces bio-indicatrices, voici un panorama de quelques tests étonnants qui permettent d’informer de la santé des sols. Derrière leur éventuelle dimension ludique, ils montrent à quel point les données ainsi recueillies sur le bon fonctionnement de ces écosystèmes sont précieuses, notamment pour l’agriculture.


Les sols nous rendent des services précieux et encore trop souvent invisibles : c’est grâce à eux que de nombreuses espèces – dont la nôtre – peuvent se nourrir, voire se vêtir, grâce aux cultures textiles. Ils sont la base physique sur laquelle une large partie des écosystèmes terrestres – ainsi que les infrastructures humaines – sont bâtis.

Ils rendent des services écosystémiques incomparables. Non seulement les sols fournissent aux plantes l’eau et les nutriments nécessaires à leur croissance, mais ils permettent aussi de réguler le cycle de l’eau, entre le ruissellement de la pluie et son infiltration. De ce fait, ils jouent un rôle clé pour atténuer l’ampleur des inondations. Leur fonction de puits de carbone en fait également des alliés précieux de la décarbonation.

Les sols représentent un habitat indispensable pour la survie de certains organismes tels que des micro-organismes (bactéries, champignons, algues, protozoaires…) mais aussi d’animaux plus ou moins grands (lombriciens, arthropodes, nématodes…), tous liés par une chaîne alimentaire complexe.

Ces organismes sont très nombreux : une cuillère à café de sol contient plus d’êtres vivants qu’il n’y a d’humains sur la Terre ! On y retrouve ainsi plusieurs centaines de millions de bactéries, plusieurs dizaines de milliers de champignons, des centaines de protozoaires et des dizaines d’arthropodes tels que des acariens ou des collemboles.

Dans ces conditions, un sol en bonne santé est un sol qui fonctionne bien, c’est-à-dire qui constitue un habitat adapté pour tous ces êtres vivants. Il leur offre le gîte et le couvert : un toit sûr et constant et de quoi se nourrir en suffisance. La bonne santé d’un sol constitue un atout indéniable pour l’agriculture en termes de fertilité, production et de lutte contre les maladies…. Mais comment peut-on la mesurer simplement ?




À lire aussi :
La vie secrète des sols français


Du test du boudin au slip troué

Des tests, en tant que chercheuses spécialisées aux milieux agricoles, nous en avons connus : du test du boudin à celui du verre d’eau, de la couleur à l’odeur du sol, du test à la bèche au décompte des vers de terre, il y a l’embarras du choix.

Évoquons l’un de ces tests qui a le mérite d’être simple, efficace et non dénué d’humour : le fameux test du slip. Pour connaître la santé d’un sol, agricole par exemple, on peut ainsi enterrer un slip en pur coton blanc non traité, puis le déterrer quelques mois plus tard afin de constater son état.

Le test du slip est facile à interpréter : une dégradation rapide est plutôt une bonne nouvelle.
Gabriela Braendle / Agroscope / Université de Zurich

L’interprétation est rapide et facile : un slip retrouvé plutôt intact sera une mauvaise nouvelle, tandis qu’un slip troué sera signe d’une dégradation de la cellulose du coton. L’explication est, elle, un peu plus complexe : un sol en bonne santé est habité par une grande diversité d’organismes, qui lui confèrent un fonctionnement optimal, et notamment un bon niveau de décomposition et de minéralisation de la matière organique.

Ce sont ces fonctions du sol qui permettent le recyclage des nutriments nécessaires à la croissance des plantes. Or, la cellulose du slip, par exemple, est une matière organique. Ainsi, si le slip est en bon état lorsqu’il est déterré, cela indique qu’il n’a pas été dégradé, et que le sol ne remplit pas correctement ses fonctions de décomposition.




À lire aussi :
La biodiversité des sols nous protège, protégeons-la aussi


Les sachets de thé, un test de référence

Pour affiner l’analyse, il existe un autre test moins médiatisé : celui des sachets de thé.

Deux sachets de thé prêts à être enterrés.
Anne-Maïmiti Dulaurent, Fourni par l’auteur

Il suffit d’enterrer des sachets de thé de compositions différentes (thé vert ou rooibos), plus ou moins « digestes » pour les organismes du sol – et donc plus ou moins difficiles à dégrader – et d’étudier la perte de poids des sachets après un temps donné. S’ils se sont allégés, c’est qu’ils ont perdu de la matière – et donc que celle-ci a été décomposée par les organismes du sol.

Après tout, un sachet de thé contient simplement de la matière végétale morte à l’intérieur d’une toile en nylon. Cela représente un bon appât pour les organismes décomposeurs.

Mais tous les thés ne se valent pas : le thé vert est plus facile à dégrader, tandis que le roiboos est plus ligneux et met plus longtemps à être décomposé. Comparer les deux permet donc d’évaluer dans quelle mesure le sol peut dégrader différents types de matière organique.

Cela peut prêter à sourire, mais il s’agit pourtant d’une méthode standardisée mise en place par des chercheurs. Son protocole est disponible pour toute personne souhaitant évaluer l’efficacité de dégradation d’un sol.

Non seulement cela fournit des informations précieuses sur la capacité du sol à décomposer la matière organique, mais un tel protocole rend les résultats comparables entre différents sites du monde entier, peu importe la façon dont sont gérés les sols.

Grâce à cette méthode, des chercheurs d’UniLaSalle et des agriculteurs des Hauts-de-France ont pu mettre en évidence un meilleur niveau de dégradation de la matière organique dans des sols en agriculture de conservation des sols, un mode de gestion agricole moins intensif que le mode conventionnel.

Un sol sain est primordial pour les agriculteurs. En cas de mauvaise décomposition de la matière (c’est-à-dire, des slips intacts et des sachets de thé qui semblent prêts à être infusés malgré plusieurs semaines passées dans le sol), des analyses plus poussées en laboratoire sont alors utiles pour comprendre d’où vient le dysfonctionnement.




À lire aussi :
Les sept familles de l’agriculture durable


Les analyses de sol, précieuses pour les agriculteurs

Les analyses de sol permettent de faire le bilan de la santé des sols, et sont donc précieuses pour les agriculteurs. Ces analyses peuvent s’intéresser à plusieurs paramètres et sont effectuées au laboratoire après avoir échantillonné le sol des parcelles.

Elles peuvent ainsi mesurer :

  • La texture du sol, qui informe sur la proportion de sable, limon et argile. C’est important, car certaines textures sont favorables à un type de culture, mais pas d’autres. Quelles que soient ses pratiques, l’agriculteur n’a aucun effet sur ce paramètre, mais doit en tenir compte pour adapter sa production et ses cultures.

  • Le taux de matière organique, qui correspond à la proportion de substances issues de la décomposition des plantes, des animaux et des microorganismes présents dans le sol. Un taux élevé améliore la capacité du sol à retenir les éléments nutritifs et renforce sa structure. L’agriculteur peut l’augmenter en apportant régulièrement différents types de matière organique, comme des effluents d’élevage, des digestats de méthanisation ou en favorisant la restitution de végétaux au sol.

  • La concentration en nutriments disponibles du sol (phosphore, potassium, magnésium, etc.) renseigne sur leur présence, en suffisance ou non, pour assurer les besoins des plantes cultivées. Une faible concentration d’un nutriment peut être compensée par l’apport de fertilisants minéraux ou de différentes matières organiques qui, décomposées par les habitants du sol, libéreront ce nutriment.

  • Enfin, le pH, qui indique l’état d’acidité du sol, impacte le développement des plantes. Il peut par exemple influencer la disponibilité des nutriments, mais aussi la présence et l’activité d’organismes bénéfiques pour les plantes. Il est possible pour l’agriculteur d’agir sur ce paramètre par différents types d’apports, comme la chaux qui permet d’éviter un pH trop acide.

Toutes ces informations permettent de guider la gestion du sol par l’agriculteur. Les analyses de sol peuvent être répétées au cours des années, notamment pour surveiller l’état d’une parcelle selon les pratiques agricoles mises en œuvre.

Des nouveaux bio-indicateurs en cours de développement

On l’a compris, les organismes du sol sont en grande partie responsables de son bon fonctionnement et de son état de santé. Mais ils sont sensibles à leur milieu et à la gestion des sols. Ainsi, pour tenir compte de leur présence, de nouveaux indicateurs reposant sur la vie du sol émergent depuis quelques années : on parle de bioindicateurs pour décrire ces espèces qui, par leur présence, renseignent sur les caractéristiques écologiques des milieux.

Bien sûr, différents bioindicateurs fournissent des informations différentes : l’abondance et la diversité de la mésofaune (collemboles et acariens) renseignent sur la capacité du sol à bien découper la matière, et les champignons plutôt sur l’efficacité du recyclage des nutriments. La sensibilité de ces organismes aux pratiques agricoles en fait de bons bioindicateurs.

D’autres indicateurs biologiques sont testés actuellement, par exemple pour évaluer le bon fonctionnement du cycle du carbone et de celui de l’azote.

Ces outils ne sont pas forcément accessibles pour la majorité des agriculteurs, car ils ont un coût financier pour le moment trop élevé. Un axe de recherche serait donc de développer des tests basés sur des bioindicateurs plus simples à mettre en œuvre et à interpréter.




À lire aussi :
Comment l’agriculture industrielle bouleverse le cycle de l’azote et compromet l’habitabilité de la terre


The Conversation

Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.

ref. Du slip troué aux sachets de thé, quelques indicateurs pour mesurer la santé des sols – https://theconversation.com/du-slip-troue-aux-sachets-de-the-quelques-indicateurs-pour-mesurer-la-sante-des-sols-264713

What is the rapture, and why does TikTok believe the end is coming?

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Philip C. Almond, Emeritus Professor in the History of Religious Thought, The University of Queensland

Michelangelo, The Last Judgment (Fresco, Sistine Chapel Altar Wall), between 1536 and 1541. WIkimedia Commons

If you believe that the end of the world is at hand, then you really need to know what the rapture is. Simply put, the rapture is the belief that, at any moment, Jesus Christ will descend from heaven to the sky and “rapture” all those who truly believe in Him into heaven. Those among the faithful who have already died will rise from the dead and also be translated into heaven.

Evangelical Christians on TikTok have been predicting the rapture will come this week. When the rapture happens, believers think the rest of us will be left behind, not knowing where many of those we know have gone. For this reason, it is often known as “Left Behind theology”.

For the followers of Left Behind theology within conservative Evangelical Protestantism, significant parts of the Bible – the books of Revelation and Daniel in particular – refer to events that are yet to happen at the end of the world. These are the return of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and God’s final judgement of all humanity into the saved and the damned.

But for the rapture in particular, the First Book of Thessalonians (4.16–17) in the New Testament is the crucial text:

For the Lord himself, with a cry of command, with the archangel’s call and with the sound of God’s trumpet, will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up [raptured] in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air; and so we will be with the Lord forever.

An angel in a red robe guides 'the elect' toward the 'fountain of life' described in Revelation.
Dieric Bouts, Paradise, part of Triptych of the Last Judgement,1450.
Wikimedia Commons

Tribulation

The rapture is the first of two ideas that Left Behind theology has added to the traditional Christian story of the end of the world. The second is the Tribulation.

According to most Left Behind theologians, the rapture will be followed by a period of seven years of Tribulation on earth, based on some complicated calculations around the text of Daniel 9.24–27.

This is the age of the Antichrist, the son of Satan – a human figure soon to reveal himself.

He will be a global earthly ruler opposed to Christ and pretending to be him. He it is who is called in the Bible “the beast rising out of the sea with ten horns and seven heads” (Revelation 13.1), “the little horn” (Daniel 7.8), and “the lawless one” (2 Thessalonians 2.3) whose number is 666 (Revelation 13.18).

a triptych depicts Last Judgment during the second coming of Jesus Christ.
Hans Memling, The Last Judgment, between circa 1466 and circa 1473.
Wikimedia Commons

Christians who have been raptured into heaven are immune from these seven years of natural disasters, wars, famine and the persecutions of the Antichrist.

The kingdom upon earth

After the seven years of the Tribulation, Christ will return with his saints to fight and defeat Satan, the Antichrist, and his forces at the battle of Armageddon.

Most followers of Left Behind theology believe that Christ will then set up his kingdom upon earth and reign from Jerusalem for a millennium or a thousand years. He will govern the earth with his Christian followers, along with those Jews who have recognised Christ as the Messiah during the time of the Tribulation.

Painting: On a throne in the heavens sits Christ in judgement. Below on the right the forces of evil, commanded by Satan.
John Martin, The Last Judgement, 1853.
Wikimedia Commons

The eventual conversion of the Jews during this time explains, in part at least, the commitment to and support of many Evangelical Protestant Christians to the continuation of the State of Israel until the time of Tribulation when the Jews convert to Christianity.

At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released and there will be a final but short rebellion against God, after which Satan will be defeated. Then God will judge everyone for eternal happiness in heaven or eternal misery in hell.

A relatively recent innovation

In the history of Christian thought, the idea of the rapture before the Tribulation is a relatively recent innovation.

We can date it to the 1830s and the theology of the Anglican John Nelson Darby (1800–82), a member of the Protestant Plymouth Brethren, and the founder of the group still known as the Exclusive Brethren. But it was popularised in Protestant circles in the United States by its inclusion in the notes of the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909.

The Bible of C.I. Scofield (1843–1921) was the main source for the idea of the rapture until The Late Great Planet Earth by Hal Lindsey (1929–2024) in 1970, a work that has sold over 28 million copies and has been translated into 54 languages. “Someday,” declared Lindsey,

a day that only God knows is coming to take away all those who believe in Him. He is coming to meet all true believers in the air. Without benefit of science, space suits, or interplanetary rockets, there will be those who will be transported into a glorious place more beautiful, more awesome, than we can possibly comprehend.

But it was the series of Left Behind books (1995–2007) by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, with over 65 million books sold, along with its movie franchise, that has most popularised the idea of the rapture and the Tribulation that follows it.

God at the top centre and Jesus below him.  Rising up the left-hand side of the painting are the blessed, the damned fall into hell on the right-hand side.
Peter Paul Rubens, The Last Judgment, 1617.
Wikimedia Commons

To many of us, the world appears a place of tribulation. “’Tis all in pieces, all coherence gone,” as John Donne (1572–1631) eloquently put it.

The idea of the rapture seems to reflect the utopian dream of many that they may be translated from this Earth to a better place until they can return to a world of justice, compassion and decency that seems so absent from the present one.

The Conversation

Philip C. Almond does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. What is the rapture, and why does TikTok believe the end is coming? – https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-rapture-and-why-does-tiktok-believe-the-end-is-coming-265748

Who are the worst mothers in literature? Our experts weigh in

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Suzy Freeman-Greene, Books + Ideas Editor, The Conversation

Goodreads, Penguin Books

The first sentence of Anna Karenina is now a literary cliche, yet contains a nub of truth. “All happy families,” writes Leo Tolstoy, “resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”

Literature brims with thwarted parents wreaking havoc in unique ways. We’ve considered the worst fathers. Now we look at troubling mothers.

A recent contender here is Arundhati Roy’s depiction of her tyrannical, infuriating yet seductive mother Mary in her new memoir.

But my choice for worst mother is a fictional character, also a Mary. In US author Sapphire’s arresting 1996 novel, Push, Mary is a violent, jealous woman who follows her husband in sexually abusing their teenage daughter, “Precious”. Amid poverty and deprivation, Mary challenges every maternal stereotype.

Here are our experts’ picks.


Stuff – Joy Williams

Your adult son has just informed you he has terminal lung cancer. Do you:

A) Say, “Oh, well.”

B) Demand he speak quietly so as not to disturb your roommate, Debbie, who is playing dystopian video games.

C) Disagree with the assessment that Gnosticism is a flawed religion incapable of forming any kind of true moral community.

D) Drink a stinger the bright green of antifreeze.

E) Kick him out because your radical silence class is about to begin.

F) Do all of the above: You are a mother in the hilarious void of Joy Williams’ story Stuff.

– Alex Cothren


Medea – Euripides


Goodreads

A princess of Colchis, she betrayed her own people to help Jason, leader of the Argonauts, capture the Golden Fleece, and then ran off with him and started a family. She kept her sorcery under wraps until Jason dumped her in favour of a princess of Corinth. This betrayal sparked a massive overreaction on Medea’s part. Not only did she murder the new bride, and the bride’s father. She slaughtered her own children and then, with the help of her divine granddad (the sun god Helios), skipped off to Athens to start a new life.

– Jen Webb


Daisy Buchanan, The Great Gatsby – F. Scott Fitzgerald


Penguin books

Classic literature is lavishly adorned with bad mums. I’m going with a sleeper hit — Daisy Buchanan in The Great Gatsby, aka the love of Jay Gatsby’s life. Daisy studiously neglects her daughter Pammy, a child of about two, throughout the novel. She says she hopes Pammy will grow up to be a “beautiful little fool”, and so, frankly, do the readers, just so poor Pam won’t ever know her mother cheated on her father with a guy who ends up murdered in his own swimming pool, after being mistaken for Pammy’s own father Tom. And here’s hoping Pammy won’t know her mom Daisy killed her dad Tom’s lover Mabel in a hit-and-run accident, while drunk driving someone else’s car.

– Sophie Gee


May Callaghan, I for Isobel – Amy Witting


Goodreads

The mother in Amy Witting’s I for Isobel simmers with a rage that shapes the whole Callaghan family. But it is the bright, bookish younger daughter, Isobel, who attracts most of May Callaghan’s venom. Isobel feels her mother’s anger as “a live animal tormenting her”. May denies nine-year-old Isobel a birthday celebration; she labels her “a born liar”. Isobel wrests back power by learning to withhold her desire to scream: “She wants me to scream. I do something for her when I scream.”

At her mother’s death, Isobel feels only relief.

– Carol Lefevre


The Piano Teacher – Elfriede Jelinek


Goodreads

Erika Kohut’s Mother intrudes on every aspect of her adult daughter’s life – her movements, her body, her finances. The claustrophobic Viennese apartment they share is a site of domestic interrogation and terror, with Mother looming over Erika like a one-woman tribunal: part inquisitor and part executioner. This is domination, not maternal care, isolating Erika and driving her toward secrecy and spirals of self-harm.

In characteristically relentless and sardonic prose, Jelinek presents this relationship as a miniature of Austria’s refusal to confront its troubling political past. This is a household where desire is policed and traumatic history repressed until it sporadically erupts into terrible violence, shattering the illusions of bourgeois respectability and revealing how repression, left unchecked, becomes cannibalistic.

– Alexander Howard


The Watch Tower – Elizabeth Harrower


Goodreads

Selecting a worst mother from literature has been hard – I know they’re out there, but my brain refuses to decide on one, perhaps subconsciously rejecting the notion. I have settled on a bit-character in a novel with a truly grotesque patriarchal figure at its centre: Elizabeth Harrower’s 1966 novel The Watchtower.

The unnamed mother in this novel abandons her daughters with not a thought for their wellbeing, leaving them in the hands, and financial trap, of the cruel and contemptuous Felix Shaw. I know the world criticises mothers much more harshly than fathers for abandoning their children – in literature as in life – but this abandonment struck a chord in me that I cannot intellectualise. How easily Clare and Laura’s mother wipes her hands of them and how vulnerable they are in the world as a result.

– Edwina Preston


Serena Joy, The Handmaid’s Tale – Margaret Atwood

My pick for worst mother is controversial. Throughout both Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale and its sequel The Testaments we don’t get to see Serena Joy Waterford mothering, which, I think, is a mercy. But I’ve chosen Serena, the wife of a Commander in the republic of Gilead, because she is instrumental in destroying the very notion of what it is to be a mother, which is that of deep and compassionate care. Serena sees children as a right and a prize for religious piety – at the expense of the child and all who care for them. As Sheila Heti has written, “The whole world needs to be mothered.”

Just not by Serena.

– Natalie Kon-yu


Nina, Heartsease – Kate Kruimink


Goodreads

In Tasmanian writer Kate Kruimink’s exquisite novel Heartsease, the twentysomething Ellen (Nelly) is a daughter both made by her mother Nina and trying to remake herself against her. Nelly remembers every childhood slight and hurt, especially the many ways she disappointed her mother as an example of young womanhood: dishevelled, shy, awkward and unlike the elegant, socialite Nina in most ways. Nelly can’t show her mother or ask her questions about incidents from the past, can’t ask why it is she’s never met her maternal grandmother. For Nina died when Nelly was a teenager, and a dead mother really is the worst.

– Jane Messer


Helen, Oh Joseph, I’m so tired – Richard Yates

Richard Yates frequently drew on his personal history in his fiction, and so it’s unsurprising that he repeatedly returns to his turbulent relationship with his own mother, the erratic Ruth “Dookie” Maurer. Dookie appears in various forms in many of Yates’s novels and stories, but is perhaps best realised as the frustrated sculptor Helen in Oh Joseph, I’m so tired from Yates’ collection Liars in Love. The story is unsparing in its depiction of her awful self-centredness and bigotry, but also captures her fragility and desperate need to maintain her delusions of imminent success. Helen’s self-deception is depicted as heart-breaking and absurd, but it also briefly transforms the grim lives of her children into something more privileged and magical.

– Julian Novitz


Maggie, Bodies of Light – Jennifer Down


Goodreads

I can’t entertain a “worst” case scenario for any literary mother because the trope of the monstrous mother is alive and well and continues to cause damage. Rather, I draw attention to the complex, deeply flawed character of Maggie in Jennifer Down’s 2022 Miles Franklin winner, Bodies of Light. The survivor of a childhood marked by drug addiction, grief and abuse, Maggie’s humble attempt at conventional marriage and motherhood fails miserably when three of her babies die in her care. Sound familiar? Down’s achievement here is to show us how the idea of monstrous mothers endures in our culture. The cost is real.

– Julienne van Loon


Mrs Bannerman, The Last House on Needless Street – Catriona Ward


Goodreads

There is no shortage of horrible parents in fiction, but few have horrified me more than Ted’s mother, Mrs Bannerman, in Catriona Ward’s acclaimed The Last House on Needless Street. Her evil is conveyed to the reader via flashbacks that may or may not lead us to conclude that an adult Ted may or may not also be evil. In a suspenseful novel full of ambiguity and uncertainty, there’s nothing vague or uncertain about the abuse that the young mother subjects her son to and the pleasure that she derives from hurting him. Not one for the squeamish.

– Ali Alizadeh


Muriel Cleese, So, anyway … John Cleese


Goodreads

Most accounts of a “bad mother” are complicated by the familiar ambivalence of love-hate relationships. This isn’t the case in John Cleese’s autobiography So, Anyway …. Here the author castigates his mother as “self-obsessed and anxious”, associating this with “her extraordinary lack of general knowledge”, and accusing her of being a person who “had no information about anything that was not going to affect her life directly in the immediate future”. This led to “a constant state of high anxiety” and a desperation to have everything “her own way”. The coruscating nature of Cleese’s unmitigated bile is oddly refreshing.

– Paul Giles


Mrs Skewton, Dombey and Son – Charles Dickens


Penguin books

Dickens’ mothers generally fail by dying romantically or miserably before the action of the novel begins. So it is with the first Mrs Dombey in Dombey and Son. The second Mrs Dombey’s mother, however, is a more durable monster of vanity and manipulativeness. “Cleopatra” (her preferred name) Skewton is the freeze-dried belle of Leamington Spa, decayed and held together by cosmetics. Her aim is to sell her statuesque daughter, Edith, in marriage for the best available price. In succeeding, she finishes the job of destroying Edith’s sense of her own value. Fortunately, Edith has enough hauteur (an Australian might call it mongrel) to fight back.

– Robert Phiddian

Do you have a nomination for the worst mother – or father – in literature? If so, let us know by scrolling to the end of this article and adding your choice in the comments.

The Conversation

ref. Who are the worst mothers in literature? Our experts weigh in – https://theconversation.com/who-are-the-worst-mothers-in-literature-our-experts-weigh-in-263816

Is TikTok right? Should I avoid matcha if I have low iron?

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Margaret Murray, Senior Lecturer, Nutrition, Swinburne University of Technology

Tom Werner/Getty

The popularity of matcha continues to boom. But recent videos on social media have suggested it could be bad for you if you have low iron.

One Sydney woman recently told media she had “no idea” her daily matcha latte could affect her health until she started experiencing headaches, and noticed her hair and nails were brittle and she was bruising easily. Blood tests found she was severely low in iron.

Similar videos on TikTok show women in hospital getting iron transfusions – and blaming their matcha habit.

So, let’s unpack this. How healthy is matcha? And can it really cause low iron?

What is matcha?

Matcha is a fine powder made from dried and ground-up green tea (Camellia sinensis) leaves. It has recently gained popularity as a drink and a flavour variety in many different foods.

Matcha contains many beneficial compounds (for example, dietary fibre and polyphenols) as well as being a source of caffeine.




Read more:
Matcha is having a moment. What are the health benefits of this green tea drink?


Including matcha, or green tea, as part of a balanced diet may provide health benefits such as supporting healthy brain function and blood pressure.

However despite its health benefits, research has shown that drinking a lot of green tea is linked to lower levels of iron in the blood.

We need iron – but can’t make it

Iron is an essential micronutrient that helps transport oxygen around the body, as well as supporting many other important biological processes.

Our bodies can’t make iron, so we need to get it from our diet to support these functions. But even if we eat a lot of iron-rich foods, other things in our diet – such as coffee, red wine, calcium-rich foods and yes, matcha – can interfere with absorbing the iron.

So people with low iron levels need to be careful.

In particular, women who menstruate have an increased risk of low iron because of iron lost through bleeding.

You may have an iron deficiency if your iron falls below certain levels – typically for adults, less than 30 micrograms of iron per litre of blood. There are different cut offs for children.

Iron deficiency anaemia is a condition where very low levels of iron affect the functioning of red blood cells. It is diagnosed based on levels of haemoglobin in the blood (these cutoffs vary by age, sex and pregnancy status).

What does matcha do to iron levels?

There are two main components in green tea that stop us absorbing iron. These are polyphenols and phytic acid (also known as phytate).

Both polyphenols and phytic acid have their own health benefits, for example, protecting against chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. But they also bind to iron and prevent it from being absorbed into the body.

So, if you have a lot of food or drink that contains these components – especially in combination with iron-rich foods – they can reduce iron absorption.

However, it’s not only matcha that can interfere. Phytic acids are also found in other teas and many plant foods, such as nuts, cereals and legumes. Tea, coffee, berries, and other fruits and vegetables are also high in polyphenols.

How much matcha will affect your iron levels?

This varies between people.

One study showed people who drink three or more cups of green tea a day had lower blood iron levels than those who drink less than one a day. But they didn’t experience iron deficiency any more often.

However other research has linked moderate green tea consumption (two cups a day) to iron deficiency anaemia.

Whether or not your matcha latte will contribute to an iron deficiency depends on many other factors, including your existing iron levels.

So, what about matcha-flavoured foods?

In these – for example, matcha ice cream – the actual amount of green tea powder is very low. This means it’s unlikely to significantly affect iron absorption.

But it’s not just about quantity – when you drink your matcha also matters.

To reduce the impact on iron absorption, it’s recommended you have green tea separately from meals – at least one hour between eating and drinking tea.

What else to keep an eye on

Multiple other factors in your diet can influence iron absorption. What you eat may either exacerbate or counteract the effects of your matcha latte on iron absorption.

Overall, balance is key to ensure you are getting the full spectrum of nutrients the body requires.

To support iron levels, you can incorporate iron-rich foods (such as beans, lentils, meat, fish and fortified cereals) into a healthy diet.

Eating vitamin C-rich foods (such as capsicum, broccoli, kiwifruit and other fruit and vegetables) along with foods that contain iron can help to enhance iron absorption.

If you are concerned about your iron levels, you should speak to a health-care professional – especially if experiencing symptoms of iron deficiency (such as tiredness, weakness or dizziness).

A blood test can diagnose low iron levels. If you have an iron deficiency, your GP or dietitian will help you manage symptoms and work out what is right for you.

The Conversation

Margaret Murray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Is TikTok right? Should I avoid matcha if I have low iron? – https://theconversation.com/is-tiktok-right-should-i-avoid-matcha-if-i-have-low-iron-264261

From anime to activism: How the ‘One Piece’ pirate flag became the global emblem of Gen Z resistance

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Nuurrianti Jalli, Assistant Professor of Professional Practice, School of Media and Strategic Communications, Oklahoma State University

The Jolly Roger of the Straw Hat Pirates is flown during a protest in Rome. Vincenzo Nuzzolese/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images

From Paris and Rome to Jakarta, Indonesia, and New York, a curious banner has appeared in protest squares. With hollow cheeks, a broad grin and a straw hat with a red band, the figure is instantly recognizable and has been hoisted by young demonstrators calling for change. In Kathmandu, Nepal, where anger at the government boiled over in September 2025, the flag became the defining image as flames spread through the gates of Singha Durbar, Nepal’s ornate palace complex and seat of power.

A skull-and-crossbones flag is seen in front of a blazing building
The Straw Hat Pirates’ Jolly Roger flies in front of the Singha Durbar after people set fire to the seat of Nepal government in Kathmandu.
Sunil Pradhan/Anadolu via Getty Images

The image, usually adorning a flag with a black background, comes from “One Piece,” a much-beloved Japanese manga.

And what began as a fictional pirate crew’s emblem almost three decades ago has become a powerful symbol of youth-led resistance, appearing in demonstrations from Indonesia and Nepal to the Philippines and France.

As a scholar of media and democracy, I see the spread of the Jolly Roger of the Straw Hats Pirates – which has gone from manga pages to protest squares – as an example of how Gen Z is reshaping the cultural vocabulary of dissent.

Protesters, some in masks, hold aloft a flag with a skull in a straw hat.
Filipinos wave a ‘One Piece’ flag as they take part in a protest against corruption at Rizal Park on Sept. 21, 2025, in Manila.
Ezra Acayan/Getty Images

Pop culture as political expression

“One Piece” arrived at the birth of Gen-Z, created in 1997 by Japanese manga artist Eiichiro Oda.

Since then, it has sold more than 500 million copies and has a Guinness World Record for its publishing success.

It has spawned a long-running TV series, live-action films and a more-than-US$20 billion industry, with merchandise licensing alone generating about $720 million each year from Bandai Namco, the company best known for creating Pac-Man and Tekken.

At its core, “One Piece” follows Monkey D. Luffy and his crew, the Straw Hat Pirates, as they challenge a corrupt world government while seeking freedom and adventure.

For fans, the “One Piece” flag is not a casual decoration but an emblem of defiance and perseverance. Luffy’s ability to stretch beyond physical limits after consuming a magical fruit has become a powerful metaphor for resilience, while his unwavering quest for freedom against impossible odds resonates with young people navigating political environments marked by corruption, inequality and authoritarian excess.

When protesters adopt this flag, they are not simply importing an aesthetic from popular culture, but are drawing on a narrative already legible to millions.

The flag began cropping up in protests over the past few years. It was being waved at a “Free Palestine” protest in 2023 in Indonesia and in the same year in New York during a pro-Palestinian demonstration.

But it was in Indonesia in August 2025 that the flag’s political life truly took hold. There, protesters embraced it to voice frustration with government policies and mounting discontent over corruption and inequality. The timing coincided with government calls for patriotic displays during independence celebrations, sharpening the contrast between official nationalism and grassroots dissent.

Two people on a moped drive over a mural showing a skull and crossbones in a hat.
One Piece’s Jolly Roger flag became synonymous with Indonesian protests in August 2025.
Dika/AFP via Getty Images

The movement gained momentum when authorities responded with strong criticism of the flag’s use, inadvertently drawing more attention to the symbol. Government officials characterized the displays as threats to national unity, while protesters viewed them as legitimate expressions of political frustration.

Why the flag travels

The speed with which the “One Piece” Jolly Roger flag spread across borders reflects the digital upbringing of Gen Z. This is the first cohort to grow up fully online, immersed in memes, anime and global entertainment franchises. Their political communication relies on what scholars call “networked publics” – communities that form and act through digital platforms rather than formal organizations.

Solidarity in this setting does not require party membership or ideology. Instead, it depends on shared cultural references. A meme, gesture or flag can instantly carry meaning across divides of language, religion or geography. This form of connection is built on recognizable cultural codes that allow young people to identify with each other even when their political systems differ.

Social media gives this solidarity reach and speed. Videos of Indonesians waving the flag were clipped and reshared on TikTok and Instagram, reaching audiences far beyond their original context. By the time the symbol appeared in Kathmandu, the Nepalese capital, in September, it already carried the aura of youthful defiance.

Crucially, this was not simple imitation. In Nepal, the flag was tied to anger at youth unemployment and at the ostentatious wealth of political dynasties displayed online. In Indonesia, it reflected disillusionment with patriotic rituals that felt hollow against a backdrop of corruption. In both cases, the Jolly Roger flag worked like open-source code – adaptable locally but instantly legible elsewhere.

Part of the flag’s effectiveness comes from its ambiguity. Unlike a party logo, the “One Piece” Jolly Roger flag originates in popular culture, which makes it difficult for governments to suppress without appearing authoritarian. During the latest protests in Indonesia, authorities confiscated banners and labeled them treasonous. But such crackdowns only amplified public frustration.

A large flag with a skull and crossbones on it is surrounded by people.
The Jolly Roger flag flies amid protests in the Philippines on Sept. 21, 2025.
@rimurutempestuh/x

Fiction as reality

The “One Piece” flag is not alone in being reimagined as a symbol of resistance.

Across movements worldwide, pop culture and digital culture have become a potent resources for activists. In Chile and Beirut, demonstrators wore Joker masks as a visual shorthand for anger at corruption and inequality. In Thailand, demonstrators turned to “Hamtaro,” a children’s anime about a hamster, parodying its theme song and waving plush toys to lampoon political leaders.

This blending of politics, entertainment and personal identity reflects a hybrid media environment in which symbols drawn from fandom gain power. They are easy to recognize, adapt and defend against state repression.

Yet cultural resonance alone does not explain the appeal. The “One Piece” flag caught on because it captured real-life grievances. In Nepal, where youth unemployment exceeds 20% and migration for work is common, protesters paired the emblem with slogans such as “Gen Z won’t be silent” and “Our future is not for sale.”

In Indonesia, some protesters argued that the national flag was “too sacred” to be flown in a corrupt system, using the pirate banner as a statement of disillusionment.

The spread of the flag also reflects a broader shift in how protest ideas move across borders. In the past, what tended to travel were tactics such as sit-ins, marches or hunger strikes. Today, what circulates fastest are symbols, visual references from global culture that can be adapted to local struggles while remaining instantly recognizable elsewhere.

People walk past a skull-and-crossbones poster.
A ‘One Piece’ flag stuck in front of a high school in France during protests.
Pat Batard/Hans Lucas/AFP via Getty Images

The flag goes global

The flag’s journey from Asian streets to protests in France and Slovakia demonstrates how the grammar of dissent has gone global.

For today’s young activists, culture and politics are inseparable. Digital nativity has produced a generation that communicates grievances through memes, symbols and cultural references that cross borders with ease.

When protesters in Jakarta, Kathmandu or Manila wave the “One Piece” Jolly Roger flag, they are not indulging in play-acting but transforming a cultural icon into a living emblem of defiance.

The Conversation

Nuurrianti Jalli is affiliated with Institute for Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) Yusof Ishak Institute Singapore as Non Residential Visiting Fellow for Media, Technology and Society Program.

ref. From anime to activism: How the ‘One Piece’ pirate flag became the global emblem of Gen Z resistance – https://theconversation.com/from-anime-to-activism-how-the-one-piece-pirate-flag-became-the-global-emblem-of-gen-z-resistance-265526

Why Argentina is looking to the Trump administration for a bailout − and what the US Treasury can do to help

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Arturo Porzecanski, Research Fellow, Center for Latin American & Latino Studies, American University

Done deal? U.S. President Donald Trump shakes hands with Argentine counterpart Javier Milei during a bilateral meeting on Sept. 23, 2025. Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images

President Donald Trump vowed to help out his Argentine counterpart Javier Milei on Sept. 23, 2025, a day after the U.S. administration said “all options” were on the table in regard to a bailout for the Latin American country’s rocky economy.

A day after Trump and Milei’s meeting on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly in New York, U.S. Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent said he was prepared to lend Argentina up to US$20 billion via currency swaps and bond purchases.

But what caused Milei to go hat in hand to the U.S. in the first place? And what would a U.S. bailout of Argentina look like? For answers, The Conversation turned to Arturo Porzecanski, an expert on Latin American economies at American University.

Why is the Argentine government seeking a bail out?

The event that sparked discussion of U.S. intervention was a sharp sell-off of the Argentine currency, the peso, as well as the country’s stocks and bonds.

Over the course of three days ending on Sept. 19, the country’s central bank spent over $1 billion of its hard-currency reserves defending the Argentine peso from further depreciation. To be sure, instead of dialing up his contacts in the Trump administration, Milei could have allowed the currency to find its market-clearing value – that is, the price at which supply and demand match.

Alternatively, he could have kept up the effort to stabilize the peso by spending still more billions of dollars previously borrowed from the International Monetary Fund.

However, he decided to call Washington and ask for financial support, hoping that the friendship with Trump he has been cultivating from even before Milei was elected would finally pay off.

The Argentine authorities fear that a sharper depreciation will reignite expectations of high inflation, and they also wish to conserve those IMF funds to help cover nearly $20 billion in interest and principal payments on dollar debts coming due in the next 15 months. The Argentine government would also rather not have the central bank raise interest rates by tightening monetary policy still more, nor implement additional cuts in government spending given that the economy is either stagnant or already in a recession.

Argentina’s economy got here because prior to Milei taking office in December 2023, his predecessor applied very loose monetary and fiscal policies – such as keeping interest rates low and spending high to stimulate the economy – as well as business-unfriendly regulations. That rocketed annual inflation into triple digits and led to the crumbling of confidence among domestic and foreign investors, thus complicating the government’s ability to refinance its maturing debt obligations.

While Milei reversed many of those harmful policies during the course of 2024, notably achieving a balanced government budget and a sharp deceleration of inflation, his popular support and confidence in his ability to manage the country’s remaining challenges have weakened in recent months.

A woman casts a vote into a box.
Argentine voters handed President Javier Milei a political blow in legislative elections on Sept. 7, 2025.
Tobias Skarlovnik/Getty Images

The economy has stalled, with job losses and unemployment rising. Phone recordings suggesting corruption involving the president’s family were released. And Milei’s party did surprisingly poorly in recent elections that took place in the large province of Buenos Aires. With midterm congressional elections scheduled for Oct. 26, Milei badly needs political and financial support from the Trump administration in order to stabilize the local financial markets and project a sense of order.

What options are there for the US to help Argentina?

The U.S. government has already been unusually supportive of Argentina from its dominant positions on the board of directors of the IMF, World Bank and Inter-American Development Bank. Earlier this year, it helped the country to secure from them pledges and disbursements worth tens of billions of dollars in new loans.

What is very new and different now is the prospect of direct lending from the U.S. Treasury to the government of Argentina. As previewed by Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent on Sept. 24, his team is currently in negotiations with their counterparts in Argentina for a $20 billion swap line, which presumably would involve the Treasury’s temporary purchase of Argentine pesos in exchange for the delivery of U.S. dollars. This could possibly be supplemented by the Treasury’s temporary purchase of Argentine government bonds, likely payable in dollars, whether newly issued or already in circulation.

Bessent’s announcement, coming on the heels of Trump’s vow to help out his Argentine counterpart, has prompted local and foreign investors to regain confidence in Argentina, such that beaten-up stocks and bonds have bounced back and the currency has appreciated.

This immediate and enthusiastic market response, if sustained, means that the Treasury may not have to spend too many billions of U.S. dollars to boost public confidence in Milei and Argentina, at least until the upcoming midterm elections.

Should Milei’s party do well in the late-October contest, enabling it to gain seats in the House and Senate and thus have more political support in the national legislature, a relatively small and temporary investment may yield a worthwhile payoff for the Trump and Milei administrations.

Why is the US keen on helping out?

Normally the U.S. government does not involve itself directly in foreign bailouts unless a country is systemically important – namely, when its troubles affect its neighbors, a number of other countries, or the United States itself.

For example, in the 1990s the U.S. Treasury offered direct support to other countries during crises in Mexico, East Asia and Russia, and in 1995 Argentina was one of the beneficiaries. And in 2008, in the wake of the global financial crisis, the Fed made available dollars in exchange for the currencies of about a dozen foreign countries – currency swaps mainly with European countries but also with Brazil, Canada and Mexico, since the meltdown affected Washington’s North American neighbors and many nations in Europe.

Moreover, in most cases, whatever Treasury or Fed funding is made available is soon repaid by upcoming loans from institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, or else by major banks or institutional investors. In other words, most U.S. official support has been of the “bridge lending” kind, because the Treasury and the Fed can act within days, whereas other financial actors require weeks or even months to approve and disburse funding.

In the case of Argentina, it is notable that Bessent has stated that Argentina is systemically important, even though its troubles have so far not affected any other country. Left unsaid is how Argentina would repay the U.S. Treasury, because the pipeline of upcoming disbursements from official international organizations is not very large.

Therefore, the funds under discussion are not clear bridges to anything. In similar circumstances in the past, the U.S. Treasury has sought payment guarantees from foreign governments. Given the transactional approach favored by Trump, certain conditions may be demanded from Argentina – a country endowed with lithium, rare earths, shale oil and other resources.

What is the US Treasury’s Exchange Stabilization Fund?

The Exchange Stabilization Fund is the Treasury’s crisis-funding vehicle through which the bridging loan to prop up the Argentine currency would be made.

The fund was established in the mid-1930s. It was endowed with the profits that the U.S. Treasury realized when the official price of gold rose from $20.67 to $35 per ounce, increasing the value of U.S. government gold holdings.

For several decades through the 1980s, namely before the U.S. currency was allowed to float freely, the fund’s main purpose was to provide the funding for Treasury operations to affect the price of the dollar. A secondary purpose was to provide short-term, government-to-government loans mainly to Latin American countries, yet starting in the mid-1990s this became its primary objective.

The last Exchange Stabilization Fund loan was granted to Uruguay in mid-2002, in the wake of a major financial crisis in next-door Argentina that had triggered a bank run in Uruguay – and threatened to spread elsewhere around the region. The Treasury sent $1.5 million to Uruguay on a Monday to back at least the government-owned banks, and the funds were returned to Washington that same Friday. The bank run was stopped and thus the loan succeeded magnificently.

The Conversation

Arturo Porzecanski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Why Argentina is looking to the Trump administration for a bailout − and what the US Treasury can do to help – https://theconversation.com/why-argentina-is-looking-to-the-trump-administration-for-a-bailout-and-what-the-us-treasury-can-do-to-help-265924

Paracetamol use during pregnancy not linked to autism, our study of 2.5 million children shows

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Renee Gardner, Principal Researcher, Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet

Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock

United States President Donald Trump recently claimed that using the common painkiller acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol and by the brand name Tylenol in the US) during pregnancy is fuelling the rise in autism diagnoses. He then went on to suggest pregnant women should “tough it out” rather than use the common painkiller if they experience fever or pain.

This announcement has caused alarm and confusion worldwide. But despite Trump’s claim, there is no strong scientific evidence to back it up. Our study of nearly 2.5 million births in Sweden published in 2024 shows no evidence that acetaminophen use during pregnancy increases a child’s risk of autism. This is the largest study conducted on the subject to date.

To understand whether acetaminophen really poses a risk in pregnancy, we turned to Sweden’s national health registers, which are among the most comprehensive in the world. Our study followed nearly 2.5 million children born between 1995 and 2019, tracking them for up to 26 years.

Using prescription records and interviews that midwives conducted during prenatal visits, we could see which mothers reported using acetaminophen (about 7.5% of pregnancies) and which did not.

We also made sure to account for any variables that may have affected the results of our statistical analysis – including controlling for health factors, such as fever or pain, which would have influenced whether or not a mother used acetaminophen during her pregnancy. This was to ensure a more fair comparison between the two groups.

We then looked at the children’s neurodevelopmental outcomes – specifically whether they were diagnosed with autism, ADHD or an intellectual disability.

The real strength of our study came from being able to compare siblings. This allowed us to compare children born to the same mother, where acetaminophen had been used during one child’s pregnancy but not the other. We compared over 45,000 sibling pairs, where at least one sibling had an autism diagnosis.

This sibling design is powerful because siblings share much of their genetics and family environment. This allows us to tease apart whether the drug itself – rather than underlying family traits or health conditions – is responsible for any apparent risks for neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Acetaminophen use

When we first looked at the entire population, we saw a pattern that echoed earlier studies: children whose mothers reported using acetaminophen during pregnancy were slightly more likely to be diagnosed with autism, ADHD or an intellectual disability.

But once we ran the sibling comparisons, that association completely disappeared. In other words, when we compared sets of siblings where one was exposed in the womb to acetaminophen and one was not, there was no difference in their likelihood of later being diagnosed with autism, ADHD or an intellectual disability.

A pregnant woman holds a glass of water in one hands and a pill in the other hand.
Our study found no association with acetaminophen use during pregnancy and a child’s risk of being diagnosed with autism.
Dragana Gordic/ Shutterstock

Our study is not the only one to put this question to the test. Researchers in Japan recently published a study using a similar sibling-comparison design, and their results closely matched ours.

Importantly, they replicated our findings in a population with a different genetic background and where patterns of acetaminophen use during pregnancy are quite different. Nearly 40% of mothers in Japan reported using the drug during pregnancy. In comparison, less than 10% of Swedish mothers had used it.

Despite these differences, the conclusion was the same. When siblings are compared, there is no evidence that acetaminophen use during pregnancy increases the risk of autism or ADHD.

These findings mark an important shift from earlier studies, which relied on more limited data, used smaller cohorts and didn’t account for genetic differences. They also did not fully account for why some mothers used pain relief during pregnancy while others didn’t.

For example, mothers who take acetaminophen are more likely to also have migraines, chronic pain, fever or serious infections. These are conditions that are themselves genetically linked to autism or ADHD, as well as a child’s likelihood of later being diagnosed with one of these conditions.

These types of “confounding factors” can create associations that look convincing on the surface, but may not reflect a true cause-and-effect relationship.

That brings us to the real question on many people’s minds: what does this mean if you’re pregnant and dealing with pain or fever?

It’s important to recognise that untreated illness during pregnancy can be dangerous. A high fever in pregnancy, for example, is known to increase the risk of complications for both mother and baby. “Toughing it out,” as the president suggested, is not a risk-free option.

That’s why professional medical organisations such as the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the UK’s Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency continue to recommend acetaminophen (paracetamol) as the safest fever reducer and pain reliever during pregnancy when used at the lowest effective dose and only when necessary. This has been the guidance for decades.




Read more:
Paracetamol, pregnancy and autism: what the science really shows


Of course, if someone finds themselves needing to take acetaminophen regularly over a longer period of time, that’s a decision best made in consultation with their doctor or midwife. But the idea that acetaminophen use during pregnancy causes autism simply isn’t supported by the best available science.

The greater danger is that alarmist messaging will discourage pregnant women from treating pain or fever – putting both themselves and their babies at risk.

The Conversation

Renee Gardner receives funding from the Swedish Research Council; the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life, and Welfare; and the US NIH.

Brian Lee received funding from the NIH, Pennsylvania Department of Human Services, Department of Defense and Pennsylvania Department of Health CURE SAP, as well as personal fees from Beasley Allen Law Firm, Patterson Belknap Webb & Tyler LLP and AlphaSights.

Viktor H. Ahlqvist receives funding from the Swedish Society for Medical Research

ref. Paracetamol use during pregnancy not linked to autism, our study of 2.5 million children shows – https://theconversation.com/paracetamol-use-during-pregnancy-not-linked-to-autism-our-study-of-2-5-million-children-shows-265919

How the First Amendment protects Americans’ speech − and how it does not

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Ray Brescia, Associate Dean for Research and Intellectual Life, Albany Law School

Demonstrators protest the suspension of the “Jimmy Kimmel Live!” show on Sept. 18, 2025, in Los Angeles, Calif. Photo by Mario Tama/Getty Images

Imagine a protest outside the funeral of a popular political leader, with some of the protesters celebrating the death and holding signs that say things like “God Hates the USA/Thank God for 9/11,” “America is Doomed” and “Don’t Pray for the USA.”

No matter the political leanings of that leader, most Americans would probably abhor such a protest and those signs.

What would tolerate such activities, no matter how distasteful? The First Amendment.

The situation described above is taken from an actual protest, though it did not involve the funeral of a political figure. Instead, members of the Westboro Baptist Church protested outside the funeral of Marine Lance Cpl. Matthew Snyder, a U.S. service member killed in Iraq.

Through demonstrations like this, members of this group were conveying their belief that the U.S. is overly tolerant of those they perceive as sinners, especially people from the LGBTQ community, and that the death of U.S. soldiers should be recognized as divine retribution for such sinfulness.

Snyder’s family sued for intentional infliction of emotional distress, among other claims. A jury issued a US$5 million jury award in favor of the family of the deceased service member. But in a nearly unanimous decision issued in 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court found that the First Amendment insulated the protesters from such a judgment.

This holding is particularly instructive today.

The Trump administration has vowed to crack down on what it calls hate speech. It has labeled antifa, a loosely organized anti-fascist group, a terrorist organization. And it has sought to punish figures such as TV host Jimmy Kimmel for statements perceived critical of conservative activists.

What the First Amendment makes clear is that it does not just protect the rights of speakers who say things with which Americans agree. Or, as the Supreme Court said in a separate decision it issued one year after the case involving the funeral protesters: “The Nation well knows that one of the costs of the First Amendment is that it protects the speech we detest as well as the speech we embrace.”

But free speech is not absolute. As a legal scholar who has studied political movements, free speech and privacy, I realize the government can regulate speech through what are known as “reasonable time, place, and manner” restrictions. These limits cannot depend upon the content of the speech or expressive conduct in which a speaker is engaged, however.

For example, the government can ban campfires in an area prone to wildfires. But if it banned the burning of the U.S. flag only as a form of political protest, that would be an unconstitutional restriction on speech.

Protected and unprotected speech

There are certain categories of speech that are not entitled to First Amendment protection. They include incitement to violence, obscenity, defamation and what are considered “true threats.”

When, for example, someone posts threats on social media with reckless disregard for whether they will instill legitimate fear in their target, such posts are not a protected form of speech. Similarly, burning a cross on someone’s property as a means of striking terror in them such that they fear bodily harm also represents this kind of true threat.

There are also violations of the law that are sometimes prosecuted as “hate crimes,” criminal acts driven by some discriminatory motive. In these cases, it’s generally not the perpetrator’s beliefs that are punished but the fact that they act on them and engage in some other form of criminal conduct, as when someone physically assaults their victim based on that victim’s race or religion. Such motives can increase the punishment people receive for the underlying criminal conduct.

Speech that enjoys the strongest free-speech protections is that which is critical of government policies and leaders. As the Supreme Court said in 1966, “There is practically universal agreement that a major purpose of (the First) Amendment was to protect the free discussion of governmental affairs.”

As the late Justice Antonin Scalia would explain in 2003, “The right to criticize the government” is at “the heart of what the First Amendment is meant to protect.”

Restrictions on government action

The First Amendment prevents the government from taking direct action to curtail speech by, for example, trying to prevent the publication of material critical of it. Americans witnessed this in the Pentagon Papers case, where the Supreme Court ruled that the government could not prevent newspapers from publishing a leaked – and politically damaging – study on U.S. military involvement in Vietnam.

But it also applies when the government acts in indirect ways, such as threatening to investigate a media company or cutting funding for a university based on politically disfavored action or inaction.

In 2024 the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the state of New York’s efforts to punish companies that did business with the National Rifle Association because of the organization’s political positions violated the group’s First Amendment rights.

Similarly, in recent months, courts have ruled on First Amendment grounds against Trump administration efforts to punish law firms or to withhold funds from Harvard University.

And just last week, a federal court in Florida threw out a lawsuit filed by President Trump against The New York Times seeking $15 billion for alleged harm to the president’s investments and reputation.

Nevertheless, some people fear government retribution for criticizing the administration. And some, like the TV network ABC, have engaged in speech-restricting action on their own, such as taking Kimmel temporarily off the air for his comments critical of conservative activists in the wake of Charlie Kirk’s killing.

Before Kimmel’s suspension, Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr described his negotiations with ABC’s parent company, Disney, to take action against him. “We could do this the easy way or the hard way,” Carr said. And Trump said that some media companies might “lose their license” for criticizing the president. It is encouraging that, in the face of these threats, ABC has reversed course and agreed to put Kimmel back on the air.

A man listens to reporters.
President Trump speaks to reporters aboard Air Force One after attending a memorial service for conservative activist Charlie Kirk in Glendale, Ariz., on Sept. 21, 2025.
AP Photo/Julia Demaree Nikhinson

The First Amendment protects speech across the political spectrum, even speech Americans do not like. Both liberal comedian Jon Stewart and conservative commentator Tucker Carlson have recently agreed on this. As Carlson said recently, “If they can tell you what to say, they’re telling you what to think. … There is nothing they can’t do to you because they don’t consider you human.”

Just last year in the NRA case referenced above, the Supreme Court clearly stated that even indirect government efforts to curtail protected speech are indeed unconstitutional. In light of that ruling, efforts to limit criticism of the administration, any administration, should give all Americans, regardless of their political views, great pause.

The Conversation

Ray Brescia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. How the First Amendment protects Americans’ speech − and how it does not – https://theconversation.com/how-the-first-amendment-protects-americans-speech-and-how-it-does-not-265655