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April 8, 2026

How Artemis II’s Earthset photo compares with the iconic Earthrise image from 1968

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Robert Poole, Professor of History, University of Lancashire

Earthset, as captured aboard the Orion spacecraf during the Artemis II mission. Nasa

As Nasa’s Artemis II mission completed its lunar flyby, the astronauts sent back a stunning image of the colourful Earth setting behind the Moon. This breathtaking photo, called Earthset, draws inevitable comparisons with the original Earthrise photo from the Apollo 8 flight in 1968.

The Apollo-era photo showed our planet climbing above the lunar horizon. It revealed Earth as a bright blue oasis, standing out against the vast blackness of space and the barren Moon.

As I described in my book, Earthrise: a Short History of the Whole Earth, the effect of this image (actually part of a set) was profound. It caused a sensation on its release and helped inspire the burgeoning environmental movement.

The polished image from Artemis II and the slightly askew picture from Apollo 8 are, however, the product of entirely different approaches to photography from space.

“I don’t want to see you guys looking out the window,” Apollo 8 commander Frank Borman warned his colleagues Jim Lovell and Bill Anders during the 1968 mission to orbit the Moon.

Astronauts back then were discouraged from wasting film on touristy snapshots of the Earth. The Apollo 8 mission plan listed Earth images as mere “targets of opportunity”, the lowest priority of all.

The way the two missions kicked off underline the differences between 1968 and 2026. The crew of Apollo 8 took no still photos of Earth on the way out, but had reluctantly agreed to take a black-and-white TV camera for live transmissions.

Photography is a high priority for the Artemis II crew, but things were different when the Earthrise image was taken in 1968.
Nasa

They were unable to fit the telephoto lens to the camera in time for the first transmission, so viewers saw only a fuzzy blob of light. Once the lens was fitted, the Moon bounced around the screen while mission control tried to issue “up a bit, down a bit” instructions with a 1.3-second delay.

Despite this more haphazard approach to photography during some of the Apollo missions, the imagery from that era looms large in the public imagination. Earthrise is one icon from that era; another is the whole-Earth image known as Blue Marble – taken in 1972 during the Apollo 17 mission.

One of the earliest images released by Nasa from the Artemis II flight was a crystal-clear image of our planet taken on a tablet computer by the mission’s commander, Reid Wiseman. The image of Earth’s full disk, initially dubbed “Hello, World” but later changed to “mother Earth”, clearly recalls the iconic Blue Marble photo.

Unlike that famous daytime image from 1972, it shows the Earth at night – but has been enhanced to look like daylight. In the new photo, auroras can be seen at the poles and a thin crescent of sunlight is visible, glowing through the atmosphere. Both photos show a predominance of southern ocean and cloud, with Europe just visible near the rim.

Left: Earth as captured by Artemis II astronaut Reid Wiseman in 2026; right: Earth captured aboard the Apollo 17 mission in 1972.
Nasa

The Earthrise image from 1968 came about largely due to the initiative of Anders. On the mission’s fourth orbit around the Moon, the three crew members were busy photographing it in black and white when Anders noticed some unexpected colour out of the corner of his eye. “Oh my God! Look at that picture over there! Here’s the Earth coming up,” he exclaimed.

After a brief tussle over cameras and colour film, he snapped Earthrise using a mechanical Hasselblad camera with no viewfinder. No-one would see any of their pictures until after they returned to Earth and the film could be developed and printed.

As well as its impact on environmentalists, the image also inspired a young David Bowie in London. Shortly afterwards, he wrote the song Space Oddity about a stranded astronaut gazing upon an Earth to which he can never return.

The Earthrise photo taken by Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders in 1968.
Nasa

As Artemis II swung round the Moon on April 6, anticipation grew for a modern counterpart to Apollo 8’s legendary image. Before the flyby, Nasa had released simulations of what the Artemis astronauts would see. The simulations showed a half-lit Moon with the distant crescent Earth at its side and clear black space between – like twin planets.

Earthset is different from Earthrise because the Moon is farther away, and because the Earth is only partially sunlit. While Artemis II swept round the Moon in a leisurely, gravity powered slingshot five thousand miles away, Apollo 8 orbited the Moon ten time from just 70 miles up. This gives us a small crescent Earth rising and setting behind an almost full lunar disc.

Nasa seems to have chosen to showcase the Earthset image because it feels more like the familiar 1968 Earthrise. The Artemis images of the Earth rising show a small crescent Earth with its back to the lunar horizon, like the new Moon as seen from Earth.

An Artemis II image of the Moon coming into view along the terminator, the boundary between lunar day and night, where low-angle sunlight casts long, dramatic shadows across the surface.
Nasa

Environmental awakening

Apollo 8’s Earthrise, released two days after splashdown, was not seen in colour until the weekly magazines appeared. Space enthusiasts had expected Earth to appear relatively insignificant in the vastness of space. The phrase “Earth is man’s cradle, but one cannot live in the cradle forever” was a familiar quote at the time.

But viewed from the vicinity of the barren lunar landscape, the Earth looked even more like home. Borman thought “this is what God sees”, while Anders mused: “We came all this way to the Moon … and yet the most significant thing we’re seeing is our own home planet, the Earth.”

Our planet draws closer to passing behind the Moon in this image by the Artemis II crew.
Nasa

The image’s link to the environmental movement is unsurprising when viewed in this light. The Apollo 8 image was used in the logo for the first Earth Day in 1970 and, as the Apollo programme was ending, Earth sciences – the study of our home planet – began to take off.

The 1972 Blue Marble image also resonated among environmentalists. It was replicated by Nasa’s deep space telescope DSCOVR 50 years later. A side-by-side comparison between the 2022 DSCOVR image and the 1972 photo highlights the effects of environmental degradation.

In the intervening years, much of Madagascar had turned from tropical green to brown from deforestation, the Sahara had expanded, the Antarctic ice had retreated, and ancient snows had disappeared from the mountains of Iran.

Left: the 1972 Blue Marble image from Apollo 17; right: the 2022 image from DSCOVR. The comparison reveals the effects of deforestation in Madagascar and desertification in the Sahara.
Nasa

It remains to be seen whether the images from Artemis II will have a comparable impact on the global environmental consciousness. However, the title of Earthset is perhaps the perfect name in an era where societies are threatened by climate change.

The crew of Artemis II have made clear where the priorities still lie. “It is so great to hear from Earth again,” said mission specialist Christina Koch as the craft regained radio contact after a brief blackout as the spacecraft passed behind the Moon.

“We do not leave Earth but we choose it … We will inspire, but ultimately we will always choose Earth.”

Robert Poole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How Artemis II’s Earthset photo compares with the iconic Earthrise image from 1968 – https://theconversation.com/how-artemis-iis-earthset-photo-compares-with-the-iconic-earthrise-image-from-1968-279966

April 8, 2026

Palimpseste d’Archimède : comment une page perdue a refait surface à Blois

Source: The Conversation – France in French (2) – By Victor Gysembergh, Directeur de recherches au CNRS, Sorbonne Université

Le prophète Daniel entouré de deux lions, enluminure sur le recto de la page retrouvée à Blois. Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, Inv. 73.7.52/IRHT-CNRS

On la pensait perdue à jamais : une page du palimpseste d’Archimède vient d’être retrouvée au Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, dans le Loir-et-Cher. Le chercheur qui a identifié ce feuillet issu du manuscrit du Xᵉ siècle rassemblant les traités du géomètre raconte sa découverte par un hasard fécond (mâtiné d’une bonne mémoire) et propose des pistes pour retrouver deux autres feuillets encore manquants.

Le 9 mars 2026, le CNRS a annoncé que j’avais identifié, dans les réserves du Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, un feuillet du palimpseste d’Archimède considéré comme perdu. Je voudrais revenir ici sur cette histoire et sur ce qu’elle révèle : dans le silence des collections publiques et privées, avec la numérisation massive, combien de trésors restent encore invisibles, faute d’avoir été cherchés ?

Le palimpseste d’Archimède est un manuscrit du Xᵉ siècle qui rassemble sept traités du géomètre de Syracuse – dont la Méthode des théorèmes mécaniques, seul texte où il explique comment il a trouvé ses résultats avant de les démontrer. Héritier, comme beaucoup de textes antiques, d’une chaîne inconnue de recopies remontant aux originaux perdus d’Archimède (IIIᵉ siècle avant notre ère), il est le plus ancien exemplaire conservé de ses textes et, pour certains, le seul témoin. En 1229, des moines ont effacé ce trésor – probablement à l’aide d’une pierre ponce – pour y réécrire un livre de prières. Le parchemin, fabriqué dans ce cas à partir de peau de chèvre ou de mouton, valait cher (ce seul codex contenait l’équivalent d’une cinquantaine de bêtes). C’est ainsi que naissent les palimpsestes, du grec palimpsêstos (« gratté de nouveau »).

La palimpseste d’Archimède.
Archimedespalimpsest.org

1906 : la première redécouverte

C’est le philologue danois Johan Ludvig Heiberg qui redécouvrit le texte d’Archimède à Constantinople en 1906 en déchiffrant à l’œil nu le texte effacé, puis qui fit photographier le manuscrit à la lumière blanche et ultraviolette. La découverte fit la première page du New York Times. Ses photographies, conservées aujourd’hui à la Bibliothèque royale du Danemark, ainsi que leur déchiffrement par Heiberg, restèrent longtemps la seule trace documentaire du codex, car le palimpseste disparut peu de temps après.

Il ne refit surface que plusieurs décennies plus tard, dans une collection privée française, avant d’être vendu aux enchères chez Christie’s en 1998 pour deux millions de dollars.

Une page du palimpseste d’Archimède.
Archimedespalimpsest.net

Le nouveau propriétaire le confia au Walters Art Museum de Baltimore, aux États-Unis, où, au début des années 2000, des expériences d’imagerie multispectrale – consistant à photographier le manuscrit sous différentes longueurs d’onde de lumière (visible, ultraviolette, infrarouge, puis rayons X) pour en tirer des informations complémentaires invisibles à l’œil nu – permirent de lire beaucoup mieux les traités d’Archimède, et de découvrir des textes qu’aucun œil humain n’avait lus depuis des siècles – dont un commentaire aux Catégories d’Aristote et un discours de l’orateur Hypéride. Mais trois feuillets parmi les 177 recensés par Heiberg avaient disparu entre-temps. Depuis lors, ils étaient considérés comme perdus à jamais.

Une blague de bureau qui permet de retrouver un trésor

En octobre 2025, je discutais avec des collègues du fait que Blois avait longtemps abrité une partie des bibliothèques royales de France. Par jeu, je lançai : « Tiens, cherchons s’il y a un palimpseste à Blois. » Je saisis les mots dans Arca, la bibliothèque numérique de l’Institut de recherche et d’histoire des textes. Une notice apparut : un parchemin au Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, inventaire 73.7.52.

En regardant les images numérisées, quelque chose dans l’écriture me frappa. C’est une déformation professionnelle : les années passées à fréquenter les manuscrits anciens développent une sorte de mémoire visuelle involontaire, comme on peut reconnaître une chanson à partir des premières secondes. De surcroît, l’une des faces portait une figure géométrique. Je déchiffrai le texte lisible : un passage du De la sphère et du cylindre. Je sortis les photographies de Heiberg. La comparaison fut sans appel. L’écriture, les figures, le texte lui-même : tout concordait. J’avais devant moi le feuillet 123 du palimpseste d’Archimède.

Ce que dit la page – et ce qu’elle cache

Le feuillet contient les propositions 39 à 41 du premier livre du traité. Une face est lisible ; l’autre est recouverte d’une enluminure représentant le prophète Daniel entre deux lions. Celle-ci fut vraisemblablement exécutée vers 1942 à l’instigation de son propriétaire Salomon Guerson, dans une tentative désespérée d’en augmenter la valeur pour la vendre afin d’échapper aux persécutions antisémites.

Blois, Musée des beaux-arts, Inv. 73.7.52 (Photograph IRHT-CNRS) = Archimedes palimpsest (olim Constantinople, Metochion tou Panagiou Taphou, shelfmark 355), p. 123r — Le recto de la page retrouvée.
Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, Inv. 73.7.52/IRHT-CNRS

Le verso de la page du palimpseste d’Archimède retrouvée par hasard à Blois — Le verso de la page du palimpseste d’Archimède retrouvée par hasard.
Musée des beaux-arts de Blois, Inv. 73.7.52/IRHT-CNRS

La science moderne sait regarder à travers ces obstacles. Dans les prochains mois, j’espère mener une campagne d’imagerie multispectrale puis de cartographie par fluorescence de rayons X – une technique qui détecte les résidus métalliques de l’encre ancienne sous des couches opaques, sans endommager le parchemin. Ces méthodes, bien plus performantes qu’au début des années 2000, pourraient aussi permettre de relire des passages du palimpseste restés illisibles lors de la campagne de Baltimore.

Deux feuillets manquent encore

Les trois feuillets disparus ont probablement été découpés en France vers 1942. Si l’un d’eux a survécu dans les réserves d’un musée et a pu être identifié en quelques secondes de recherche numérique, les deux autres peuvent très bien avoir suivi des trajectoires comparables.

Le feuillet que j’ai reconnu avait été légué au musée en 1973 par le collectionneur André Frank (on ignore comment il l’avait acquis) et n’avait pas été identifié pour ce qu’il était. Les deux autres feuillets se trouvent peut-être dans une bibliothèque, un musée, une collection privée – en France ou dans les pays voisins. Des parchemins grecs avec, d’un côté, plusieurs couches de texte et peut-être aussi des figures géométriques et des enluminures, de l’autre. Peut-être exactement ce que vous possédez ?

L’aide possible des collectionneurs

Les manuscrits anciens, en particulier les palimpsestes, sont rares et précieux. Mais la numérisation ne les endommage pas, et augmente au contraire leur valeur en révélant leurs contenus. Elle permet qu’une reproduction soit déposée dans une base de données accessible.

Le feuillet de Blois a été retrouvé parce qu’André Frank l’avait légué au musée, et parce que l’institution l’avait catalogué et numérisé – sans même savoir ce qu’elle possédait. Sans cette infrastructure de partage, ma recherche dans Arca n’aurait rien donné.

Les parchemins sont aussi fragiles : humidité, variations de température, matériaux acides peuvent en quelques décennies effacer ce que vingt siècles ont préservé. L’IRHT-CNRS, la BNF, les Archives nationales ou l’équipe du projet ERC PALAI, dont je suis responsable, peuvent conseiller gratuitement tout collectionneur souhaitant protéger ses biens.

L’appui indispensable des chercheurs

Il serait injuste de faire reposer sur les seuls collectionneurs la responsabilité des trésors qui dorment. Des milliers d’établissements (bibliothèques municipales, musées de province, fonds d’archives ecclésiastiques, collections universitaires) conservent des manuscrits que personne n’a regardés depuis trop longtemps. Les raisons de cette sous-exploration sont compréhensibles : pression à la publication, spécialisation croissante, difficulté à financer des recherches exploratoires. On ne dépose pas un projet ANR sur une recherche d’aiguille dans une botte de foin.

Et pourtant, c’est précisément ce type de recherche – patiente, buissonnière, fondée sur une curiosité sans objet défini – qui produit les découvertes les plus inattendues. Consacrer quelques heures par semaine à explorer des catalogues numériques et à écrire aux conservateurs de fonds peu consultés n’est pas du temps perdu.

Nous ne savons pas ce que nous avons. La numérisation des collections publiques est une révolution silencieuse (mais elle s’arrête aux portes des collections privées). L’œuvre d’Archimède a survécu par une série d’accidents heureux : des copistes minutieux, un philologue danois attentif, un musée qui a conservé sans le savoir un fragment de génie. À chaque maillon, quelqu’un a fait le bon choix – ou le hasard a bien fait les choses. Aujourd’hui, nous n’avons plus besoin du hasard. Il ne manque que la volonté. Et parfois, un coup de fil.

Pour signaler un palimpseste ou demander un conseil en conservation, écrire à : cnrs-palai@cnrs.fr.

Victor Gysembergh a reçu des financements de Sorbonne Université, la Mairie de Paris et l’Union européenne (ERC grant PALAI, n° 101170952).

– ref. Palimpseste d’Archimède : comment une page perdue a refait surface à Blois – https://theconversation.com/palimpseste-darchimede-comment-une-page-perdue-a-refait-surface-a-blois-279261

April 8, 2026

Pourquoi le prix de l’essence à la pompe ne baisse pas aussi vite qu’il monte

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Salomée Ruel, Professeur, Pôle Léonard de Vinci

Pour un litre d’essence à 2,03 euros, le droit d’accise (ex-TICPE) représente 40,4 %, le pétrole brut 28,6 %, la distribution 14,4 %, la TVA 8,6 %. Gautier Normand/Shutterstock

Les prix à la pompe montent comme une fusée, mais descendent comme une plume. Un paradoxe en apparence mystérieux. En réalité, un litre de carburant est la somme de trois paramètres : le produit, à savoir le pétrole brut qui est ensuite raffiné, le couple logistique et distribution, et surtout les taxes. Comprendre cette décomposition clarifie les éventuelles marges de manœuvre de l’État, des producteurs et des distributeurs.

Au début était le produit, l’« or noir ». Le carburant vient du pétrole brut, souvent indexé sur le prix du Brent, converti du dollar vers l’euro, puis transformé dans des raffineries. À l’ouverture de la bourse, le 15 février 2026, le prix d’un baril de Brent était de 68,54 dollars (59,77 euros), de 100,88 dollars (87,98 euros) le 24 mars 2026 et de 106,6 dollars (92,97 euros) le 30 mars 2026.

Décomposition du prix de SP95 en France en 2026.
Roole

Logiquement, lorsque le prix d’un baril de Brent augmente (ou quand l’euro baisse), le coût de matières premières dans le prix final du carburant augmente lui aussi. À l’inverse, si le prix du pétrole brut diminue, mécaniquement le coût de matière première baisse, mais pas toujours instantanément ! En effet, il existe des délais liés aux stocks ou aux circuits d’approvisionnement.

Un ordre de grandeur aide à se repérer : un baril de Brent contient 159 litres. Une variation de dix dollars supplémentaires par baril (8,69 euros) fait monter le prix d’un litre d’essence de 6 cents de dollars (0,052 euro) « avant taxes », auxquels s’ajoutent les effets du taux de change et du raffinage.

Prix d’un baril de Brent au 31 mars 2025, 73,76 dollars ; au 31 mars 2026, 115,04 dollars.
Boursorama

Du dépôt pétrolier vers la station-service

Une autre partie du prix concerne le transport, le stockage et la vente de carburant depuis les dépôts pétroliers vers les stations-service.

Ces coûts logistiques augmentent année après année du fait de l’inflation – 5,2 % en 2022 et 0,9 % en 2025. Des salaires plus hauts ou une mise aux normes auront des conséquences sur le prix du carburant. D’après l’Insee, depuis 2022, les coûts de transport-distribution ont augmenté « plus modérément » que le pétrole brut et le raffinage, mais tout de même d’environ + 9 centimes d’euros par litre sur la période étudiée.

Avant même la marge des stations-service, une part du prix reflète des marges en amont, notamment la marge de raffinage et les conditions du marché de gros. Elles peuvent varier rapidement, notamment en cas de tensions logistiques.

Autre point important : malgré les débats, la marge nette d’une station-service reste généralement faible. De 2 centimes d’euros par litre pour les stations en grande distribution à environ 8 centimes d’euros par litre pour des stations plus onéreuses du réseau des indépendants.

Les consommateurs peuvent suivre en temps réel les prix des carburants dans les stations-service de l’Hexagone.
Gouv.fr

Taxes de l’État

Les taxes, fixées par l’État et complétées par les régions, sont la part la plus visible du prix d’un litre de carburant. Elles représentent entre 50 % et 60 % du prix final, selon le type de carburant et le niveau du baril. Résultat : quand le prix du brut varie, seule une partie du prix à la pompe peut s’ajuster, le reste étant fiscal et donc relativement rigide.

Deux éléments sont à prendre en compte :

L’accise (ex-taxe intérieure de consommation sur les produits énergétiques, ou TICPE), qui représente 36 % du prix à la pompe du gazole et 39 % de celui du sans-plomb (SP95). Le montant fixe par litre (en 2026, hors majorations régionales, est de 68,29 centimes d’euros par litre pour l’essence et 59,40 centimesd’euros par litre pour le gazole. L’accise nationale est stable depuis 2018.
La taxe sur la valeur ajoutée (TVA), à 20 % depuis 2006, qui s’applique sur le prix hors taxe, mais aussi sur l’accise. Quand le prix du produit monte, la TVA augmente mécaniquement.

En 2025, toutes les régions, sauf la Corse, ont adopté la majoration maximale du taux de l’accise.

Effets contre-intuitifs d’une baisse de taxe

Du côté de l’État, le principale marge de manœuvre est fiscale. Par exemple, modifier l’accise temporairement ou durablement, et jouer sur des dispositifs de compensation comme les « remises » universelles ou ciblées.

En 2026, le gouvernement de Sébastien Lecornu privilégie un plan de soutien de 70 millions d’euros avec des « aides ciblées ».

Toute baisse de taxe a un coût budgétaire très significatif, car l’accise sur les carburants reste une recette majeure. En 2022, les remises sur les prix à la pompe avaient coûté plus de huit milliards d’euros à l’État ; en 2023, les chèques carburants près d’un milliard.

À noter un élément essentiel contre-intuitif : quand les prix augmentent, les automobilistes finissent souvent par réduire leur consommation. Or, l’accise est perçue par litre. Par conséquent, si les volumes baissent, les recettes d’accise baissent aussi, ce qui peut annuler (voire inverser) le gain de TVA lié à un prix plus élevé.

Marges (faibles) des distributeurs

Affiche de l’« opération transparence » carburant.
40 millions d’automobilistes, CC BY-NC

Côté distributeurs, les stations-service, comme celles Shell, Avia, TotalEnergies, Carrefour, Leclerc ou Esso, peuvent ajuster leurs marges. Sur un produit très concurrentiel comme le carburant, il n’est question que de quelques centimes seulement.

C’est pourquoi la Fédération nationale de l’automobile et l’association 40 millions d’automobilistes (opposée aux radars urbains et aux pistes cyclables à Paris après le confinement) ont lancé le 19 mars 2026 « l’opération transparence ». L’enjeu : afficher à leur caisse le détail précis du prix d’un litre de carburant.

« Rockets and Feathers »

« Les prix montent comme une fusée, mais descendent comme une plume. » En économie, ce phénomène est connu sous le nom de Rockets and Feathers. Une étude sur le marché britannique souligne que les prix de détail s’ajustent plus rapidement quand les coûts augmentent que lorsqu’ils baissent. Une autre étude, aux États-Unis, confirme cette contradiction.

Évolution des prix des carburants en France de 2007 à 2026.
Roole, CC BY-NC

Cette asymétrie apparaît pour plusieurs raisons.

Délais et stocks

Une station vend « aujourd’hui » du carburant acheté « hier ». Si le brut baisse, le prix « théorique » baisse tout de suite, mais le carburant en cuve a été payé à l’ancien coût.

À l’inverse, quand les coûts montent, le risque de vendre à perte rend l’ajustement plus rapide. Car, la vente à perte est une pratique commerciale interdite.

Coûts d’ajustement et de coordination

Dans beaucoup de réseaux de distribution, les prix sont modifiés « par salves » plutôt qu’en continu. Les stations ne révisent pas leur affichage à chaque microvariation du marché, mais à des moments précis (par exemple, une ou deux fois par jour), souvent en regardant les prix des stations voisines. Ce mode d’ajustement peut rendre les baisses plus lentes, parce que la station attend davantage d’informations (confirmation de la baisse) ou le « bon moment » pour s’aligner.

Comportement des automobilistes

Quand les prix flambent, les consommateurs comparent plus, changent de station, et la concurrence « s’active » : d’où les mises à jour de prix plus régulières. Quand les prix baissent, la pression concurrentielle est généralement moins intense. La baisse se diffuse alors plus lentement.

Taxes « rigides »

La présence d’une accise fixe, ou « rigidifie », le prix. Quand le produit baisse, la part fiscale reste la même. Logiquement, la baisse totale à la pompe est mécaniquement moins spectaculaire que la variation du pétrole (et donc, parfois moins visible).

Coûts à long-terme

Quand l’actualité géopolitique se tend, notamment dans le détroit d’Ormuz, c’est surtout le « paramètre produit » qui s’emballe, puis qui se transmet implacablement vers les pompes des stations-service. Par conséquent, les automobilistes voient leur facture en carburant augmenter inexorablement.

Pour pallier ces hausses tarifaires, l’État dispose d’un levier réel via les taxes (TVA et droit d’accise), mais il est politiquement sensible et coûteux pour les finances publiques.

Les producteurs de pétrole, comme le Canada, l’Arabie saoudite ou le Kazakhstan, influencent l’amont via le niveau de production et le prix d’un baril de pétrole brut (Brent). Les distributeurs jouent surtout sur la vitesse de répercussion des prix, avec des bénéfices limités.

Ces marges de manœuvre existent, mais elles sont rarement immédiates, et presque toujours assorties d’un coût à moyen terme et long terme.

Salomée Ruel ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

– ref. Pourquoi le prix de l’essence à la pompe ne baisse pas aussi vite qu’il monte – https://theconversation.com/pourquoi-le-prix-de-lessence-a-la-pompe-ne-baisse-pas-aussi-vite-quil-monte-279632

April 8, 2026

Slopaganda wars: how (and why) the US and Iran are flooding the zone with viral AI-generated noise

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Mark Alfano, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Macquarie University

In early March, a week after the first US-Israeli strikes on Iran, the White House posted a video of real American attacks mixed with clips from popular movies, television series, video games and anime.

Iran and its sympathisers responded to the strikes by flooding social media with outdated war footage allegedly from the current conflict alongside AI-generated content depicting attacks on Tel Aviv and US bases in the Persian Gulf.

More recently, viral video clips reportedly created by a team of Iranians depict Donald Trump, Jeffrey Epstein, Satan, Benjamin Netanyahu, Pete Hegseth, Ayatollah Khamenei, and others as Lego figurines.

Welcome to the brave new world of slopaganda.

The rise of slopaganda

Late last year, in a paper published in Filisofiska Notiser, we coined the portmanteau “slopaganda” to refer to AI-generated slop that serves propagandistic purposes.

By propaganda we mean communication intended to manipulate beliefs, emotions, attention, memory and other cognitive and affective processes to achieve political ends. Add generative artificial intelligence and the result is slopaganda.

The slopaganda situation has since become far worse than we expected.

In October 2025, US President Donald Trump posted an AI-generated video depicting himself piloting a fighter jet while wearing a crown and dumping faeces on American protesters. More recently, he posted an AI-generated video envisaging his presidential library as an enormous gaudy skyscraper, complete with a golden elevator.

Lego-themed Iran-created slopaganda is just the latest example. The material isn’t just videos. It can also be images, text, or whatever else AI can generate.

How slopaganda slips through our defences

What is the point of all this slopaganda? We have several answers so far.

First, through repeated exposure in both legacy and social media, slopaganda can penetrate our usual mental defences. It works when it is attention-grabbing, emotionally arresting – typically in a negative way – and delivered to a distracted audience, such as people scrolling social media or switching between browser tabs.

Second, it is a very effective way of diluting the epistemic environment – the world of what we think we know – with falsehoods and half-truths. As philosophers have argued, ChatGPT and other generative AI tools can be machines for bullshit, in the sense of content that is indifferent to truth.

Slopaganda can be understood as a special kind of AI bullshit, but its unique features become clearer when we look at its use in campaigns such as the Iranian Lego videos.

This is not just bullshit. No one is misled into thinking Trump can pilot an F-16 and drop faeces out of it. No one (we hope) believes plastic Trump Lego figurines are in cahoots with a plastic Satan figurine.

Rather than aiming for accuracy, the slopaganda is expressive and emblematic of feelings and emotions, and meant to create an association. The intended linkages are something like Satan is associated with Trump while the United States is associated with evil, and so on.

What slopaganda means for shared truth

A third point is that some slopaganda is indeed misleading. This may be by design, or because a joke or trolling escapes its intended context and is misunderstood as serious – a phenomenon scholars call “context collapse”. Misleading slopaganda, including deepfakes, can be generated quickly during conflicts, crises and emergencies, when people want information but authoritative sources are scarce.

Once misleading information or a particular association enters someone’s mind, it can be hard to shake. Because slopaganda can reach huge audiences, even a small misleading effect in the general population may have significant consequences. State actors, corporations, and private individuals can potentially influence group beliefs and decisions, including election results, protest movements, or general sentiment about an unpopular war.

Fourth, the prevalence of slopaganda may make us doubt everything else. People will no doubt become better at spotting this kind of material, but they will also become more likely to misidentify authentic content as slop. As a result, public trust in genuinely trustworthy individuals and institutions may also fall.

When this occurs, the overall effect is likely to be a general lowering of public trust in genuinely trustworthy individuals and institutions, leading to a kind of nihilistic doubt in really knowing anything.

When it’s hard or impossible to identify trustworthy sources, you can choose to believe whatever you find comforting, invigorating or infuriating. In increasingly polarised societies struggling with interlocking economic, political, military and environmental crises, the breakdown of shared sources of truth will only make things worse.

3 ways to stave off slopagandapocalypse

What can be done about the slopaganda shitstorm? In our paper, we discuss interventions at three different levels.

First, individuals can become more digitally literate, for instance by looking for telltale signs of AI in text, images and video. They can also learn to check sources rather than merely glancing at headlines and other content, as well as to block sources that routinely spread slopaganda, rather than attempting to evaluate each piece of content in a vacuum. This will help them avoid falling for slopaganda while still trusting authentic sources of news and other information.

Second, industry and regulators can implement technological fixes to watermark AI-generated content. Some content may even need to be removed from platforms where people see news and other important information.

Third, large tech companies such as OpenAI, Google and X can be held accountable for what they have made. This could be done through taxation and other interventions to fund both regulatory efforts and education in digital literacy.

Slopaganda is probably here to stay. But with sufficient foresight and courage, we may still be able to adapt to it – and even control it.

Mark Alfano receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

Michał Klincewicz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Slopaganda wars: how (and why) the US and Iran are flooding the zone with viral AI-generated noise – https://theconversation.com/slopaganda-wars-how-and-why-the-us-and-iran-are-flooding-the-zone-with-viral-ai-generated-noise-280024

April 8, 2026

Plagiarised research passed automated tests, and I detected it – but only because it copied my work

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Carolyn Heward, Senior lecturer, Clinical Psychology, James Cook University

Earlier this year, I published a paper on the ethics of researching military populations.

The core argument was straightforward: the standard rules researchers follow to protect participants – for example, informed consent and voluntary participation – don’t work the same in an institution built on hierarchy and obedience.

A soldier can, as protected by ethics, say no to participating in research. But when their commanding officer has nominated them, the practical reality of saying no is very different from the legal right to do so. My paper explored the tension between ethical rights and lived reality.

A couple of weeks ago I was asked to peer-review a manuscript submitted to a psychology journal on the same topic. It didn’t take long for me to become suspicious. As I read on, I came to realise the safeguards in place to protect research integrity are not keeping pace with the tools that can be used to circumvent them.

From factual errors to reproduced memos

Within the first couple of pages of the manuscript, I recognised my own work.

The manuscript had the same argument as mine, a similar structure and conceptual framework. Most alarmingly though, it contained my reflexive memos, reproduced and paraphrased as though they belonged to someone else.

Reflexive memos are a kind of research diary, in which a researcher documents their personal reflections on their own research: the dilemmas they faced, the decisions they made, the things they noticed that shaped their thinking. Reflexive memos aren’t drawn from the literature; you can’t find them in another paper and reference them. They come from the researcher’s own life.

Mine documented what is was like navigating a 24-month institutional approval process that became an ordeal of lost paperwork, shifting requirements and bureaucratic dead ends. They documented the concept of being “voluntold” – that is, watching defence personnel be put forward for supposedly voluntary training programs, and recognising the unspoken pressure that made refusal practically impossible.

In the memos, I also documented the tension I felt as a clinical psychologist between my professional obligations around confidentiality and the reporting requirements imposed on me as a researcher working within the defence organisation.

These were reproduced as if they had happened to someone else.

The manuscript also got something factually wrong. It reproduced a scenario from my fieldwork on an Australian Defence Force base, describing the force’s values displayed on flags on the main thoroughfare.

It substituted the value of “bravery” instead of the correct value, “courage” – a synonym, yes, but any researcher working in this field would spot that immediately.

A lucky catch

I can’t say with any certainty how the manuscript was produced. Nor am I sure of what happened to the manuscript after I raised my concerns.

What I can say is that the systematic paraphrasing throughout, the basic factual error, and the reference list padded with loosely relevant citations, is consistent with the use of AI.

The editor-in-chief of the journal, after confirming the plagiarism, reached the same conclusion.

The journal ran the manuscript through iThenticate, an industry-standard plagiarism software used by many major academic publishers. It returned an 8% similarity match, below the threshold that would normally prompt editorial concern. The 8% corresponded to my published article. The rest had been paraphrased thoroughly enough to look like original work.

The incentive structures of academic publishing, where the number of papers you publish affects your career progression and your institution’s rankings, create conditions where the temptation to cut corners is real.

The editor-in-chief noted that the humanities and social sciences have so far been relatively unaffected by fake science flooding scientific literature. He told me he hopes the social sciences and humanities will remain relatively spared from this phenomenon, but I suspect this may be changing.

The peer review system worked in this case. But only because the manuscript happened to be sent to the person whose work had been reproduced. That’s luck, not a safeguard.

Plagiarism tools are designed to find matching text. They’re not designed to ask whether the experiences reported in a piece of writing could plausibly belong to the person claiming them. That’s a question only a human reader with a genuine knowledge of the field can answer.

A deeper concern

But there was a deeper concern that really got to me.

When someone plagiarises a literature review, they steal intellectual ideas. When someone plagiarises a methods section, they steal intellectual labour.

But when someone reproduces a reflexive memo and presents it as their own, that isn’t about claiming someone else’s ideas; they’re claiming someone else’s experiences.

They’re essentially saying: “I was there, I felt this, this happened to me”. They were not there, they did not feel it, it did not happen to them.

I’ve spent more than a decade working as a clinical psychologist within defence mental health services. That clinical experience is what drew me to this research in the first place. The ethical tensions I documented in my article came from my work as a researcher, from real moments, my lived experiences.

Reading them reproduced in someone else’s name was a particular kind of violation that I’m not sure our existing language around plagiarism quite captures.

Carolyn Heward does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Plagiarised research passed automated tests, and I detected it – but only because it copied my work – https://theconversation.com/plagiarised-research-passed-automated-tests-and-i-detected-it-but-only-because-it-copied-my-work-279553

April 7, 2026

When a president is unfit for office, here’s what the Constitution says can happen

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Kirsten Matoy Carlson, Professor of Law and Adjunct Professor of Political Science, Wayne State University

President Donald Trump mimics an Iranian protester being shot while holding a news conference in the White House on April 6, 2026. Tom Williams/CQ-Roll Call, Inc via Getty Images

Bipartisan calls for President Donald Trump’s removal from office increased on April 7, 2026, after he issued threats to destroy “a whole civilization” if Iran refuses to reopen the Strait of Hormuz.

These calls have come from across the political spectrum, from Democratic Reps. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of New York and Melanie Stansbury of New Mexico to former Rep. Marjorie Taylor Greene and right-wing pundit Alex Jones. Unlikely allies seem to agree that the president has gone too far and needs to be reined in.

Their concerns have emerged as Iran has walked away from talks to end the war and Trump’s language suggests that he plans to escalate it by destroying the country’s power plants and bridges.

Concerns over Trump’s fitness for office have grown in recent weeks as his commentary has become more erratic.

If lawmakers do attempt to remove Trump from office, here’s what would happen:

A scene of the Senate voting in Trump's impeachment trial in 2020 — Donald Trump has been impeached twice, but has not convicted.
Senate Television via AP

25th Amendment

The Constitution’s 25th Amendment provides a way for high-level officials to remove a president from office. It was ratified in 1967 in the wake of the 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy – who was succeeded by Lyndon Johnson, who had already had one heart attack – as well as delayed disclosure of health problems experienced by Kennedy’s predecessor, Dwight Eisenhower.

The 25th Amendment provides detailed procedures on what happens if a president resigns, dies in office, has a temporary disability or is no longer fit for office.

It has never been invoked against a president’s will, and has been used only to temporarily transfer power, such as when a president is undergoing a medical procedure requiring anesthesia.

Section 4 of the 25th Amendment authorizes high-level officials – either the vice president and a majority of the Cabinet or another body designated by Congress – to remove a president from office without his consent when he is “unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office.” Congress has yet to designate an alternative body, and scholars disagree over the role, if any, of acting Cabinet officials.

The high-level officials simply send a written declaration to the president pro tempore of the Senate – the longest-serving senator from the majority party – and the speaker of the House of Representatives, stating that the president is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. The vice president immediately assumes the powers and duties of the president.

The president, however, can fight back. He or she can seek to resume their powers by informing congressional leadership in writing that they are fit for office and no disability exists. But the president doesn’t get the presidency back just by saying this.

The high-level officials originally questioning the president’s fitness then have four days to decide whether they disagree with the president. If they notify congressional leadership that they disagree, the vice president retains control and Congress has 48 hours to convene to discuss the issue. Congress has 21 days to debate and vote on whether the president is unfit or unable to resume his powers.

The vice president remains the acting president until Congress votes or the 21-day period lapses. A two-thirds majority vote by members of both houses of Congress is required to remove the president from office. If that vote fails or does not happen within the 21-day period, the president resumes his powers immediately.

The 25th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
National Archives via AP

The case for impeachment

Article II of the Constitution authorizes Congress to impeach and remove the president – and other federal officials – from office for “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.” The founders included this provision as a tool to punish a president for misconduct and abuses of power. It’s one of the many ways that Congress could keep the president in check, if it chose to.

Impeachment proceedings begin in the House of Representatives. A member of the House files a resolution for impeachment. The resolution goes to the House Judiciary Committee, which usually holds a hearing to evaluate the resolution. If the House Judiciary Committee thinks impeachment is proper, its members draft and vote on articles of impeachment. Once the House Judiciary Committee approves articles of impeachment, they go to the full House for a vote.

If the House of Representatives impeaches a president or another official, the action then moves to the Senate. Under the Constitution’s Article I, the Senate has the responsibility for determining whether to remove the person from office. Normally, the Senate holds a trial, but it controls its procedures and can limit the process if it wants.

Ultimately, the Senate votes on whether to remove the president – which requires a two-thirds majority, or 67 senators. To date, the Senate has never voted to remove a president from office, although it almost did in 1868, when President Andrew Johnson escaped removal from office by one vote.

The Senate also has the power to disqualify a public official from holding public office in the future. If the person is convicted and removed from office, only then can senators vote on whether to permanently disqualify that person from ever again holding federal office. Members of Congress proposing the impeachment of Trump have promised to include a provision to do so. A simple majority vote is all that’s required then.

This is an updated version of an article originally published on Jan. 9, 2021.

Kirsten Matoy Carlson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. When a president is unfit for office, here’s what the Constitution says can happen – https://theconversation.com/when-a-president-is-unfit-for-office-heres-what-the-constitution-says-can-happen-280120

April 7, 2026

How the Artemis II crew trained to observe and photograph the moon: A NASA science team geologist explains

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Gordon Osinski, Professor in Earth and Planetary Science, Western University

The Artemis II crew has now broken the record — previously held by Apollo 13 — for the farthest distance any humans have ever travelled from Earth. The crew also completed a flyby of the moon’s far side and sent back some amazing images of the lunar surface.

I am a professor, an explorer and a planetary geologist, specializing in the study of meteorite impact structures. I am also a member of the First Artemis Lunar Surface Science Team and have been supporting NASA in developing the geology training for Artemis astronauts.

The flyby was particularly exciting as it offered a stunning new perspective of the lunar surface. It also provided the first operational test of a new science team and evaluation room at Mission Control in NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.

And it was fantastic to see the Artemis II crew conduct observations and take photographs of geological landforms on the moon’s surface — putting their training with me at the Kamestastin Lake impact structure, on the territory of the Mushuau Innu First Nation in northern Labrador, into practice.

A new view of the moon

Unlike the Apollo missions, that orbited at approximately 110 kilometres above the surface of the moon, Artemis II was at a much higher altitude — around 6,545 kilometres above the lunar surface.

This greater distance allowed the crew to view the moon as a full disk, including regions near both the North Pole and South Pole.

Two images of the moon, from different angles. — The moon, viewed from Earth and by Artemis II crew. T marks the Tycho crater; O marks the Orientale crater.
(G. R. Osinski using NASA images)

The crew was also able to take targeted photographs of various geological landforms on the lunar surface as part of the Artemis II science program. One of the primary goals of these investigations is to inform future missions, including the planned first journey back to the lunar surface with Artemis IV as soon as 2028.

Close-up, grey-coloured, image of the moon's cratered surface. — A close-up view taken by the Artemis II crew of Vavilov Crater on the rim of the older and larger Hertzsprung basin. The right portion of the image shows the transition from smooth material within an inner ring of mountains to more rugged terrain around the rim. The image was captured with a handheld camera at a focal length of 400 millimetres, around the far side of the moon.
(NASA)

A new science team

One of the highlights of NASA’s livestream during the mission has been the direct conversations between two good friends: Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen and science officer Kelsey Young.

Science officers are the senior flight controllers responsible for lunar science and geology objectives during Artemis missions.

They act as the main interface between the wider Mission Control team and the Artemis II science team, which is located in a totally separate room called the Science Evaluation Room (SER).

Both science officers and the evaluation room are brand new for NASA’s Artemis program; they did not exist during the Apollo program.

We have been developing the structure and defining roles in the SER for the first Artemis mission to the moon’s surface. But there is nothing like a real mission to test and refine how the science team should work.

Artemis science officers, from left, Kelsey Young, Trevor Graff, and Angela Garcia stand at the new SCIENCE console in the Mission Control Center at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.
(NASA/Josh Valcarcel)

A crash course in lunar geology

If you listened in to NASA’s livestream and heard any of the geological descriptions the astronauts were giving, I hope you were impressed — I certainly was!

Their knowledge is a testament to the geology training that NASA has provided the crew in the months and years since they were selected for the Artemis program.

Artemis II Pilot Victor Glover, Commander Reid Wiseman, and Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen huddle around a camera in the Orion spacecraft. — Artemis II Pilot Victor Glover, Commander Reid Wiseman, and Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen configure their camera equipment shortly before beginning their lunar flyby observations.
(NASA)

First, the crew participated in a crash course in lunar geology called “Lunar Fundamentals.” This weeklong, classroom-based training offered them the basics to understand lunar geology and the processes that shape the moon’s surface — primarily impact cratering and volcanism.

However, as somebody who has been teaching for more than 20 years, I know the best place to learn about geology is in the field. That’s why NASA also took the Artemis astronauts to a series of field sites in the United States, Iceland and Canada.

Early in their training, in September 2023, three of the crew members — Hansen, Christina Koch and back-up crew Jenni Gibbons — undertook geology training at the Kamestastin Lake impact structure in northern Labrador. Then the entire crew travelled to Iceland in August 2024.

Kamestastin Lake training expedition

I was honoured to play a leading role in the Kamestastin Lake training. This location was chosen because it offers a similar landscape to the surface of the moon.

Gordon Osinski is in the centre holding a piece of rock and explaining to astronauts Jeremy Hansen (left) and Jenni Gibbons (right), with a rock structure on the right and blue sky behind. — Gordon Osinski (centre) explains the processes that formed the 28-kilometre diameter Kamestastin Lake impact structure to Canadian Space Agency astronauts Jeremy Hansen (left) and Jenni Gibbons (right).
(Canadian Space Agency)

The Kamestastin Lake crater was formed approximately 35 million years ago by the impact of an asteroid between one and two kilometres in diameter. Not only are rocks like breccias and impact melt rocks produced by the asteroid’s impact well preserved here, but the crater also formed in a rock called anorthosite — the exact same rock that makes up the lunar highlands.

In addition to participating in the geology training itself, I was largely responsible for the logistics for this expedition.

Kamestastin is in a remote part of northern Labrador, so we flew in via Twin Otter aircraft and established a temporary base camp. From tents to pots and pans and food for 16 people, there was a lot to take care of. We then used zodiac boats to travel around the crater.

The team wearing red jackets in a zodiac boat on the ocean. — Heading back to basecamp after a wet day in the field at Kamestastin Lake. Clockwise from left: Gordon Osinski (Western University), André Gariepy (CSA), Christina Koch (NASA), Jenni Gibbons (CSA), Raja Chari (NASA), and Jeremy Hansen (CSA).
(G. Osinski.)

Sacred Innu stories of the moon

Kamestastin Lake and the surrounding region are on the territory of the Mushuau Innu First Nation. A key part of my role in the training was liaising with the First Nation, which has been following Hansen on this historic mission.

A highlight for me was sitting around the fire on one of our last nights with Innu Guardians from Natuashish and hearing about how sacred the moon is to them — as it is to many Indigenous Peoples around the world.

They also told us the story of Tshakepesh, an Innu hero who teaches that with courage, hard work and perseverance, one can always overcome difficulties.

As the Artemis II crew return from its journey, I am struck by the parallels. The crew has shown the world what can happen if we work together towards a common goal with courage, hard work, perseverance and humility.

Gordon Osinski founded the company Interplanetary Exploration Odyssey Inc. He receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Space Agency.

– ref. How the Artemis II crew trained to observe and photograph the moon: A NASA science team geologist explains – https://theconversation.com/how-the-artemis-ii-crew-trained-to-observe-and-photograph-the-moon-a-nasa-science-team-geologist-explains-279829

April 7, 2026

From ‘sustainable’ to ‘regenerative’ agriculture: What’s in a name?

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Kate Congreves, Associate Professor, Jarislowsky & BMO Research Chair in Regenerative Agriculture, University of Saskatchewan

Sustainability has become something of a buzzword over the years. From the clothes we wear and the energy that powers our homes to the way we live our lives, the idea of sustainable production and consumption has become commonplace.

That is also true about the way we grow and consume food. Recently, however, another term has come to the fore: regenerative agriculture. It sounds attractive, somehow better than sustainable, but what does it really mean?

Regenerative agriculture began as a grassroots approach to farming led by farmers. It has been described in many different ways, but a common thread is a set of values.

People might be drawn to the word “regenerative” because it evokes a sense of improvement rather than just maintaining the status quo — for example, efforts to rebuild a system and our values. That last bit — rebuilding not only the system but our values — is really important.

Values often include care for the environment, a responsibility to nature and cultivation of good food. Just like there are many ways to grow food, there are also many languages, voices and histories that express the ways that food can be cultivated in alignment with values.

The need for an agricultural ethic

It easier to standardize and market a simple list of practices than a philosophically sound ethical framework, but that doesn’t mean ethical frameworks are irrelevant. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that examines concepts of good and bad, right and wrong and our values.

Ethics might be the one thing that agricultural science has been missing but needs the most. Agriculture has been rudderless when it comes to collectively deciding what is or isn’t good for humans and the environment.

Cornerstone ethical frameworks have provided reasons for taking care of the environment, such as the land ethic and deep ecology.

These laid the foundation for important movements supporting nature preservation and conservation, and the United Nations 30 by 30 goal to set aside 30 per cent of the planet for conservation areas by 2030.

These frameworks, however, are easier to apply outside of agriculture rather than to inform agricultural practice within environments. They might often involve protecting land from agricultural use.

Yet agriculture is a part of the environment, not separate from it. We need an environmental ethic that works for agriculture, one that centrally grounds it as part of the environment. This is where regenerative agriculture might help.

A better approach

In my work, I define regenerative agriculture as an ecological approach and ethic for our agricultural system that involves reciprocity with the land, to support ecosystems with the goal of nurturing the environment.

Ecosystem processes and environmental components such as land, soil, water, air, flora and fauna are all viewed as morally worthy of consideration due to their roles in giving life.

A regenerative agriculture ethic would allow for natural shifts in ecological stability due to cultivation, but would draw the line when the ecosystem processes are damaged, degraded or severed. In this approach, regeneration is valued.

Regenerative agriculture can help other movements like agroecology, as opposed to threatening them. Agroecology is a larger science, practice and social movement to build an inclusive food system with political, social, environmental aspects of sustainability. Bringing in an agricultural environmental ethic will help advance this goal.

However, focusing on a “one-size-fits-all” standard for regenerative agriculture and marketing it for profits has left the concept a hollowed version of itself. It has been reduced to a simple list of agricultural practices or outcomes, like ticking off a grocery list.

Generic practices like diversification and soil health management are frequently cited, without specifying the degree of diversification or whether soil health indicators actually improve.

This oversimplification, and convenient marketing use by agrifood corporations, has caused expert panels and researchers to warn the concept has been co-opted. In its narrowed version, the underlying values have been left out.

If regenerative agriculture becomes just another marketable list of practices, then its potential for real transformation evaporates. However, if we pause and prioritize a truly regenerative agriculture ethic, it may lead us to a prosperous and healthy environment and society.

Kate Congreves receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Jarislowsky Foundation and the Bank of Montreal.

– ref. From ‘sustainable’ to ‘regenerative’ agriculture: What’s in a name? – https://theconversation.com/from-sustainable-to-regenerative-agriculture-whats-in-a-name-275209

April 7, 2026

Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Scott L. Montgomery, Lecturer in International Studies, University of Washington

Oil wells in the Persian Gulf region are among the most productive in the world. Jakub Porzycki/NurPhoto via Getty Images

It has been said that Persian Gulf countries are both blessed and cursed by their vast oil and gas reserves. Geologic forces over millions of years have meant the region is an energy-rich global flash point, as it is now with a war underway that’s causing a global energy crisis.

As a petroleum geologist who has studied the region, I still find myself amazed at the size of its hydrocarbon endowment. For instance, there are more than 30 supergiant fields, each holding 5 billion barrels or more of oil, around the Persian Gulf. And wells in the region produce two to five times more oil each day than even the best wells in the North Sea and Russia.

Modern geoscience has identified several key factors of rocks that make a region particularly rich in petroleum, including their ability to generate and hold hydrocarbons. In the Persian Gulf region, all of these factors are at or near optimal levels.

For sheer abundance and ease of production, it simply doesn’t get any better than the Persian Gulf region.

A map of the Persian Gulf region shows locations of oil and gas fields. — The Persian Gulf region is rich in oil fields, marked in green, and gas fields, marked in red.
Central Intelligence Agency via Library of Congress

A quick history

Humans knew about the presence of hydrocarbons in the area long before flooding created the Persian Gulf at the end of the last ice age, between 14,000 and 6,000 years ago. Natural seeps of oil and gas are common along rivers and valleys in many parts of the region. Thousands of years before the start of the Common Era people used bitumen, a form of heavy oil, for building mortar and to waterproof boats.

The first modern oil discovery came in 1908 at a known seepage site in western Iran. In the 1950s and ’60s, an era of rapid expansion in oil and gas exploration, it became clear that no other region on Earth was likely to have a similar abundance.

Other areas with huge volumes of oil and gas have been found, such as West Siberia in Russia and, more recently, the Permian Basin in the U.S., but none compare either with the scale of reserves or the high rates at which oil and gas can be produced in the Persian Gulf.

Geologic setting

The Persian Gulf region is located where two continental plates are colliding: the Arabian Plate to the southwest and the Eurasian Plate to the east and north. This collision has been happening for about 35 million years and has resulted in a dynamic setting where rock layers have been bent and broken and, at deeper levels, transformed by significant heat and pressure.

Geologic features differ a great deal between the two sides of the Gulf. On the Iranian side, the the Zagros Mountains stretch 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) from the Gulf of Oman to the Turkish border. Part of the great Alpine-Himalayan mountain system, the Zagros are made up of highly folded and broken rocks that formed over the past 60 million years from the collisions of Africa, Arabia and India with Eurasia.

On the Arabian side of the Gulf, that type of bending and fracturing didn’t occur. Instead, the compressive forces of collision warped a rigid platform of deep, hard rock known as “basement rock” into broad, dome-like structures of enormous size, extending for tens, even hundreds, of square miles.

Underlying the Persian Gulf itself is a basin filled with debris eroded from the rising of the Zagros Mountains. In its deeper portions, the basin was subjected to high temperatures and pressures necessary for the generation of oil and gas.

Overall, it is an excellent setting for generating and trapping hydrocarbons on a large scale.

An overhead view of a folded and rumpled landscape. — A satellite view of an area of the southwestern Zagros Mountains shows long ridges and valleys, evidence of tectonic plates colliding.
NASA via Flickr

Rocks that make oil

Oil and gas form from organic material such as marine zooplankton and phytoplankton, originally concentrated in shales, mud-rich limestones and other rocks exposed to elevated temperatures and pressures. When rocks are composed of at least 2% organic material, they are considered to be high quality for oil and gas generation.

The Gulf region has a particularly large number of layers of such source rocks, some of which are especially thick, widespread and organically rich. Examples are the Hanifa and Tuwaiq mountain formations on the Arabian side of the Gulf, which formed during the Jurassic period, about 200 million to 145 million years ago, and the Kazhdumi formation in Iran, which formed in the Cretaceous period, about 145 to 66 million years ago. These rocks have between 1% and 13% organic content, and even more in some places.

Oil and gas structures

The region’s bent and fractured rock layers, and its domes, are well suited for trapping hydrocarbons.

Folds of the Zagros, which are legendary for geologists due to their spectacular forms on satellite imagery, contain hundreds of billions of barrels of oil and cubic meters of natural gas. A glance at a map of oil and gas in the Persian Gulf region will show a northwest-southeast trend of long, sausage-shaped fields reflective of major fold structures. These features actually include hundreds of individual fields of varied size, reaching from southern Iran through northeastern Iraq.

On the Arabian Plate, the large dome structures have formed especially large oil and gas accumulations. These include Ghawar oil field in Saudi Arabia, the largest in the world, which could produce over 70 billion barrels of crude oil. The South Pars-North Dome gas field, shared by Qatar and Iran, could produce at least 1,300 trillion cubic feet (46 billion cubic meters) of gas – equivalent in energy content to more than 200 billion barrels of oil.

The most important reservoir rocks are limestones in which portions have been partly dissolved, enhancing the ability for oil and gas to move through them. In Zagros reservoirs, fluid flows through fractures created by the folding and faulting related to plate collisions. And in places such as the Arab-D reservoir at the Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia and the Asmari limestone in many Zagros fields, these high-quality oil-storage rocks cover huge areas – hundreds and even thousands of square kilometers.

Nothing on this scale exists anywhere else on the planet, onshore or offshore, testifying to the unique petroleum geology of the Persian Gulf region.

Large industrial towers stand side by side. — A natural gas refinery at the South Pars gas field on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, in Asaluyeh, Iran.
AP Photo/Vahid Salemi

Future possibilities

The combined result of these factors is that roughly half of the world’s conventional oil reserves and 40% of its gas lie beneath just 3% of the Earth’s land surface.

U.S. Geological Survey assessments suggest that, even after more than a century of drilling and production, large amounts of oil and gas remain to be discovered in the Persian Gulf region. In a 2012 report covering the Arabian Peninsula and Zagros Mountains, the agency estimated there could be as much as 86 billion barrels of oil and 336 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in the rocks, in addition to the amounts that have already been discovered.

More oil and gas could also be produced using the horizontal drilling and fracking techniques pioneered in the U.S. in the 2000s and 2010s. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are now trying those methods in their petroleum fields. It’s too early to say how successful they may be, but research indicates they could allow even more production.

Scott L. Montgomery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth – https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303

April 7, 2026

Why starting a hobby as an adult can feel so hard — and why you should embrace beginnerhood

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Jenna Hepp, Assistant Professor, Adler University

Trying a new hobby for the first time can feel surprisingly intimidating. As adults, stepping into beginner territory often comes with discomfort, self-doubt and fear of judgment. Yet research suggests that pushing through this unease can be deeply rewarding, both mentally and emotionally.

Leisure activities and hobbies can improve well-being by increasing satisfaction. Beyond simple enjoyment, hobbies support psychological health by offering opportunities for emotional regulation, stress relief and by helping mitigate burnout and symptoms of depression.

Hobbies also foster social connectedness, through both community engagement and bonding with others through similar interests. Even when pursued alone, hobbies can promote a sense of accomplishment and autonomy, contributing to overall well-being.

Hobbies can bring joy, well-being, and focus to our busy lives, but so many of us don’t have one. If you’re ready to replace scrolling with stitching, or hustle with horticulture, The Hobby Starter Kit (a new series from Quarter Life) will help you get going.

Yet many adults often struggle to carve out space for hobbies because of lack of time, money and resources. Unlike childhood, adulthood comes with financial and time pressures, often when we feel like we’re already running on fumes.

Our modern work-centric society compounds this issue by teaching us that personal worth equates to productivity output, and that leisure is wasteful or lazy. This can leave us feeling guilty for spending time on hobbies, even though engaging in them supports the well-being that makes productivity possible.

Why adult hobbies can be hard to start

One of the main reasons why we avoid trying new things is fear — particularly fear of failure and fear of judgment. Everything is scary the first time, whether it’s a first date, the first time driving, the first college class, the first day of work or the first day at a new gym.

Firsts are scary because we can’t predict the outcome. The fear of the unknown can trigger anxiety and avoidance, which can make trying anything new feel overwhelming enough to not even try. This fear can convince us that not trying at all is better than being bad at something new.

Another layer comes from how adults perceive themselves socially. According to developmental psychology, young adulthood is a period focused on forming meaningful relationships and establishing a sense of belonging. Social acceptance becomes a priority, and new activities can make you feel vulnerable, triggering questions like: “Will they like me?” or “Will I perform to my best ability?”

For many, this fear of judgment can outweigh curiosity, making avoidance feel safer than experiencing something new, even though research suggests it’s precisely the discomfort that makes new experiences meaningful.

Why being a beginner is valuable

Despite the discomfort that comes with beginnerhood, research shows that trying new activities is associated with enhanced well-being, improved mental health, lower stress levels and personal growth.

Actively facing the fear that comes with trying something new reduces avoidance and increases motivation. Individuals who approach new experiences with curiosity and openness are more likely to report more fulfilling lives than those who avoid unfamiliar situations.

Engaging in something you love — solely for the sake of loving it — is increasingly rare in adulthood. Yet hobbies offer one of the few spaces where in actuality we can show up without the fear of punishment or imperfection, a luxury that a lot of work and social obligations rarely provide.

How to embrace beginnerhood

Starting a new hobby can be intimidating, but there are strategies to make it easier. The first is extending compassion to yourself if you’re anxious about trying something new.

Self-compassion — treating yourself with warmth and kindness in times of suffering — can be the antidote to the self-criticism you may be currently offering yourself.

If even the thought of a new hobby or new play feels intimidating, you’re not alone. Adult hobbies often feel difficult because it is asking us to show up with both skill and social confidence.

If fear of judgment is holding you back, start with something you can do alone or with one other person. And if trying alone is the fear you are holding on to, remind yourself that research shows the very thing you’re afraid to attempt may also be the thing that benefits your well-being the most.

If fear of imperfection is holding you back, seek out beginner-friendly communities or online classes where learning is the goal, not production. Set small, attainable goals for yourself to stay motivated while releasing the pressure to become perfect at it. But most importantly, give yourself permission to be bad at something without fear of critique, assessment or evaluation.

If, in beginnerhood, you feel like you have no idea what you’re doing, that’s exactly the point. It may feel challenging in the beginning, but the reward could be life-changing in the long run.

Jenna Hepp does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why starting a hobby as an adult can feel so hard — and why you should embrace beginnerhood – https://theconversation.com/why-starting-a-hobby-as-an-adult-can-feel-so-hard-and-why-you-should-embrace-beginnerhood-274718