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September 23, 2025

The UK, France, Canada and Australia have recognised Palestine – what does that mean? Expert Q+A

Source: The Conversation – UK – By George Kyris, Associate Professor in International Politics, University of Birmingham

The UK, France, Canada and Australia are among a group of nations that are moving to formally recognise the state of Palestine like most other states have done over the years. This move is a major diplomatic shift and turning point in one of the world’s most intractable conflicts. Here’s what it means.

What does it mean to recognise Palestine?

Recognising Palestine means acknowledging the existence of a state that represents the Palestinian people. Following from that, it also means that the recogniser can develop full diplomatic relations with representatives of this state – which would include exchanging embassies or negotiating government-level agreements.

Why have these countries moved together – and why now?

Diplomatic recognition, when done in concert, carries more heft than isolated gestures – and governments know this. A year or so ago, Spain tried to get European Union members to recognise Palestine together and when this was not possible opted to coordinate its recognition with Norway and Ireland only. Further away, a cluster of Caribbean countries (Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas) also recognised Palestine around the same time.

By acting together, countries amplify the message that Palestinian statehood is not a fringe idea, but a legitimate aspiration backed by a growing international consensus. This collective recognition also serves to shield individual governments from accusations of unilateralism or political opportunism.

This wave of recognition comes now because of concern that Palestinian statehood is under threat, perhaps more than ever before. In their recognition statements, the UK and Canada cited Israel’s settlements in the West Bank in their reasoning.

The Israeli government has also revealed plans that amount to annexing Gaza, the other area that ought to belong to Palestinians. This is after months of assault on its people, which the UN commission of inquiry on the occupied Palestinian Territories and Israel found amounts to genocide. Public sentiment has also shifted dramatically in support of Palestine, adding to the pressure on governments.

Why do some say recognition isn’t legal?

Israel and some of its allies argue that the recognition is illegal because Palestine lacks the attributes of a functioning state, such as full control of its territory or a centralised government. Legal opinion on whether Palestine meets the criteria of statehood is divided. But, regardless, these criteria are not consistently used to recognise states.

In fact, many states have been recognised well before they had complete control over their borders or institutions. Ironically, the US recognised Israel in 1948, refuting critics that this was premature due to the lack of clear borders. Recognition has, therefore, always been political.

But even if we take a more legal perspective, the international community, through numerous UN and other texts has long recognised the right of Palestinians to have a state of their own.

Does recognition ‘reward Hamas’, as Israel claims?

Recognising a state does not mean you recognise those who govern it. At the moment, for example, many states do not recognise Taliban rule, but this doesn’t mean they have stopped recognising the existence of Afghanistan as a state.

Similarly, the fact that Netanyahu is under arrest warrant of the International Criminal Court for war crimes and crimes against humanity has not resulted in states withdrawing their recognition of the state of Israel and its people. Recognising a state is not the same as endorsing a specific government.

Not only that but all of the states that recently recognised Palestine have explicitly said that Hamas must play no role in a future government. France said that although it recognises the state of Palestine it won’t open an embassy until Hamas releases the hostages.

Will recognition make a difference?

The past few years have laid bare the limits of diplomacy in stopping the horrific human catastrophe unfolding in Gaza. This doesn’t leave much room for optimism. And, in a way, states taking brave diplomatic steps are, at the same time, exposing their reluctance to take more concrete action, such as sanctions, to press the government of Israel to end its war.

Still, the recognition brings the potential for snowball effects that would enhance the Palestinians’ international standing. They will be able to work more substantively with those governments who now recognise their state. More states may now also recognise Palestine, motivated by the fact others did the same.

Keir Starmer walking towards a microphone. — Starmer preparing to announce UK recognition of Palestine.
Number 10/Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND

And more recognition means better access to international forums, aid and legal instruments. For example, the UN’s recognition of Palestine as an observer state in 2011 allowed the International Court of Justice to hear South Africa’s case accusing Israel of genocide and the International Criminal Court to issue an arrest warrant for Netanyahu.

The implications for the Israeli government and some of its allies could also be significant. The US will now be isolated as the only permanent member of the UN Security Council not recognising Palestine. States that do not recognise Palestine will be in a dissenting minority and more exposed to critiques in international forums and public opinion.

This growing isolation may not force immediate changes and may not bother the current US administration, which often does not follow the logic of traditional diplomacy. Still, over time, the pressure on Israel and its allies to engage with a peace process may grow.

In the end, recognition from some of the world’s biggest players breaks their longstanding alignment with consecutive Israeli governments. It shows how strongly their public and governments feel about Israel’s threat to Palestinian statehood through annexation and occupation. For Palestinians, recognition strengthens their political and moral standing. For the government of Israel, it does the opposite.

But recognition alone is not enough. It must be accompanied by sustained efforts to end the war in Gaza, hold perpetrators of violence accountable and revive peace efforts towards ending the occupation and allow Palestinians their rightful sovereignty alongside Israel.

George Kyris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. The UK, France, Canada and Australia have recognised Palestine – what does that mean? Expert Q+A – https://theconversation.com/the-uk-france-canada-and-australia-have-recognised-palestine-what-does-that-mean-expert-q-a-265790

September 23, 2025

It’s OK to use paracetamol in pregnancy. Here’s what the science says about the link with autism

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Nicholas Wood, Professor, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney

United States President Donald Trump has urged pregnant women to avoid paracetamol except in cases of extremely high fever, because of a possible link to autism.

Paracetamol – known as acetaminophen or by the brand name Tylenol in the US – is commonly used to relieve pain, such as back pain and headaches, and to reduce fever during pregnancy.

Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration today re-affirmed existing medical guidelines that it’s safe for pregnant women to take paracetamol at any stage of pregnancy.

Paracetamol is classified as a Category A drug. This means many pregnant women and women of childbearing age have long used it without increases in birth defects or harmful effects on the fetus.

It’s important to treat fevers in pregnancy. Untreated high fever in early pregnancy is linked to miscarriage, neural tube defects, cleft lip and palate, and heart defects. Infections in pregnancy have also been linked to greater risks of autism.

How has the research evolved in recent years?

In 2021 an international panel of experts looked at evidence from human and animal studies of paracetamol use in pregnancy. Their consensus statement warned that paracetamol use during pregnancy may alter fetal development, with negative effects on child health.

Last month a a group of researchers from Harvard University examined the association between paracetamol and neurodevelopmental disorders including autism and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in existing research.

They identified 46 studies and found 27 studies reported links between taking paracetamol in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental disorders in the offspring, nine showed no significant link, and four indicated it was associated with a lower risk.

The most notable study in their review, due to its sophisticated statistical analysis, covered almost 2.5 million children born in Sweden between 1995 and 2019, and was published in 2024.

The authors found there was a marginally increased risk of autism and ADHD associated with paracetamol use during pregnancy. However, when the researchers analysed matched-full sibling pairs, to account for genetic and environmental influences the siblings shared, the researchers found no evidence of an increased risk of autism, ADHD, or intellectual disability associated with paracetamol use.

Siblings of autistic children have a 20% chance of also being autistic. Environmental factors within a home can also affect the risk of autism. To account for these influences, the researchers compared the outcomes of siblings where one child was exposed to paracetamol in utero and the other wasn’t, or when the siblings had different levels of exposure.

The authors of the 2024 study concluded that associations found in other studies may be attributable to “confounding” factors: influences that can distort research findings.

A further review published in February examined the strengths and limitations of the published literature on the effect of paracetamol use in pregnancy on the child’s risk of developing ADHD and autism. The authors noted most studies were difficult to interpret because they had biases, including in selecting participants, and they didn’t for confounding factors.

When confounding factors among siblings were accounted for, they found any associations weakened substantially. This suggests shared genetic and environmental factors may have caused bias in the original observations.

Working out what causes or increases the risk of autism

A key piece to consider when assessing the risk of paracetamol and any link to neurodevelopmental disorders is how best to account for many other potentially relevant factors that may be important.

We still don’t know all the causes of autism, but several genetic and non-genetic factors have been implicated: the mother’s medication use, illnesses, body mass index, alcohol consumption, smoking status, pregnancy complications including pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction, the mother and father’s ages, whether the child is an older or younger sibling, the newborn’s Apgar scores to determine their state of health, breastfeeding, genetics, socioeconomic status, and societal characteristics.

It’s particularly hard to measure the last three characteristics, so they are often not appropriately taken into account in studies.

Other times, it may not be the use of paracetamol that is important but rather the mother’s underlying illness or reason paracetamol is being taken, such as the fever associated with an infection, that influences child development.

I’m pregnant, what does this mean for me?

There is no clear evidence that paracetamol has any harmful effects on an unborn baby.

But as with any medicine taken during pregnancy, paracetamol should be used at the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible time.

If you’re pregnant and develop a fever, it’s important to treat this fever, including with paracetamol.

If the recommended dose of paracetamol doesn’t control your symptoms or you’re in pain, contact your doctor, midwife or maternity hospital for further medical advice.

Remember, the advice for taking ibuprofen and other NSAIDS when you’re pregnant is different. Ibuprofen (sold under the brand name Nurofen) should not be taken during pregnancy.

Nicholas Wood previously received funding from the NHMRC and has held a Churchill fellowship.

Debra Kennedy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. It’s OK to use paracetamol in pregnancy. Here’s what the science says about the link with autism – https://theconversation.com/its-ok-to-use-paracetamol-in-pregnancy-heres-what-the-science-says-about-the-link-with-autism-265768

September 23, 2025

The thousand-year story of how the fork crossed Europe, and onto your plate today

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Darius von Guttner Sporzynski, Historian, Australian Catholic University

John of Gaunt dining with the King of Portugal, Chronique d’Angleterre, vol 3, late 14 century. Wikimedia Commons

In today’s world, we barely think about picking up a fork. It is part of a standard cutlery set, as essential as the plate itself. But not that long ago, this now-ordinary utensil was viewed with suspicion, derision and even moral outrage.

It took centuries, royal marriages and a bit of cultural rebellion to get the fork from the kitchens of Constantinople (today’s Istanbul) onto the dining tables of Europe.

A scandalous utensil

Early versions of forks have been found in Bronze Age China and Ancient Egypt, though they were likely used for cooking and serving.

The Romans had elegant forks made of bronze and silver, but again, mainly for food preparation.

A green fork with two tines. — Bronze serving fork from Ancient Rome, c 2nd–3rd century CE.
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Eating with a fork – especially a small, personal one – was rare.

By the 10th century, Byzantine elites used them freely, shocking guests from western Europe. And by around the 11th century, the table fork began to make regular appearances at mealtimes across the Byzantine empire.

Bronze forks made in Persia during the 8th or 9th century.
Wikimedia Commons

In 1004, the Byzantine Maria Argyropoulina (985–1007), sister of Emperor Romanos III Argyros, married the son of the Doge of Venice and scandalised the city by refusing to eat with her fingers. She used a golden fork instead.

Later, the theologian Peter Damian (1007–72) declared Maria’s vanity in eating with “artificial metal forks” instead of using the fingers God had given her was what brought about divine punishment in the form of her premature death in her 20s.

Yet by the 14th century, forks had become common in Italy, thanks in part to the rise of pasta.

It was far easier to eat slippery strands with a pronged instrument than with a spoon or knife. Italian etiquette soon embraced the fork, especially among the wealthy merchant classes.

And it was through this wealthy class that the fork would be introduced to the rest of Europe in the 16th century by two women.

Enter Bona Sforza

Born in into the powerful families Sforza of Milan and Aragon of Naples, Bona Sforza (1494–1557) grew up in a world where forks were in use; more, they were in fashion.

Her family was used to the refinements of Renaissance Italy: court etiquette, art patronage, ostentatious dress for women and men, and elegant dining.

When she married Sigismund I, king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania in 1518, becoming queen, she arrived in a region where dining customs were different. The use of forks was largely unknown.

Bowls, forks and a spoon made in Venice in the 16th century.
© The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA

At courts in Lithuania and Poland, cutlery use was practical and limited. Spoons and knives were common for eating soups and stews, and the cutting of meat, but most food was eaten with the hands, using bread or trenchers – thick slices of stale bread that soaked up the juices from the food – for assistance.

This method was not only economical but also deeply embedded in courtly and noble dining traditions, reflecting a social etiquette in which communal dishes and shared eating were the norm.

Bona’s court brought Italian manners to the region, introducing more vegetables, Italian wine and, most unusually, the table fork.

Though her use of it was likely restricted at first to formal or court settings, it made an impression. Over time, especially from the 17th century onwards, forks became more common among the nobility of Lithuania and Poland.

Catherine de’ Medici comes to France

Catherine de’ Medici (1519–89) was born into the powerful Florentine Medici family, niece of Pope Clement VII. In 1533, aged 14, she married the future King Henry II of France as part of a political alliance between France and the Papacy, bringing her from Italy to France.

Catherine de’ Medici, introduced silver forks and Italian dining customs to the French court.

Like in the case of Bona Sforza, these arrived in Catherine’s trousseau. Her retinue also included chefs, pastry cooks, and perfumers, along with artichokes, truffles and elegant tableware.

Her culinary flair helped turn court meals into theatre.

While legends exaggerate her influence, many dishes now claimed as French, trace their roots to her Italian table: onion soup, duck à l’orange and even sorbet.

The ‘right’ way to eat

Like many travellers, the curious Englishman Thomas Coryat (1577–1617) in the early 1600s brought tales of fork-using Italians back home, where the idea still seemed laughably affected.

In England, using a fork in the early 1600s was a sign of pretension. Even into the 18th century, it was considered more masculine and more honest to eat with a knife and fingers.

But across Europe, change was underway. Forks began to be seen not just as tools of convenience, but symbols of cleanliness and refinement.

In France, they came to reflect courtly civility. In Germany, specialised forks multiplied in the 18th and 19th centuries: for bread, pickles, ice cream and fish.

And in England, the fork’s use eventually became a class marker: the “right” way to hold it distinguished the polite from the uncouth.

An etching of an old man and a fork from 1888.
Rijksmuseum

As mass production took off in the 19th century, stainless steel made cutlery affordable, and the fork became ubiquitous. By then, the battle had shifted from whether to use a fork to how to use it properly.

Table manners manuals now offered guidance on fork etiquette. No scooping, no stabbing, and always hold it tines down.

It took scandal, royal taste, and centuries of resistance for the fork to win its place at the table. Now it’s hard to imagine eating without it.

Darius von Guttner Sporzynski receives funding from the National Science Centre, Poland as a partner investigator in the grant “Polish queen consorts in the 15th and 16th centuries as wives and mothers” (2021/43/B/HS3/01490).

– ref. The thousand-year story of how the fork crossed Europe, and onto your plate today – https://theconversation.com/the-thousand-year-story-of-how-the-fork-crossed-europe-and-onto-your-plate-today-260704

September 23, 2025

Do TikTok ‘anti-inflammatory diets’ really work?

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of Queensland

“Cut out all dairy. Ditch gluten. Never touch sugar again.” More than 20 million people have watched TikTok videos listing these kinds of rules under the banner of “anti-inflammatory diets.”

The promise is simple: avoid entire food groups and you’ll lose weight, banish bloating and transform your health.

But while the idea of eating to reduce inflammation has a scientific foundation, the social media version strips out nuance and risks becoming unnecessarily restrictive.

Let’s check what’s going on.

What is inflammation?

People often think of inflammation as something to avoid at all costs, but it’s actually a healthy and normal process that helps the body heal and defend itself against infections, injuries, or diseases. Without it, we wouldn’t recover from even small injuries.

Inflammation and the immune system work together: when the body notices injury or infection, the immune system starts to trigger inflammation, which brings immune cells, nutrients and oxygen to the affected area. This helps with healing.

Inflammation can be short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic). Acute inflammation is helpful and part of normal healing. For example, a scraped knee becomes red, swollen and warm as the skin repairs, or a sore throat swells while fighting infection.

Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, can be harmful. It occurs at a low level over time and is often unnoticed, but is linked with many chronic diseases including heart disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer.

What causes chronic inflammation?

Factors such as age, smoking, sedentary behaviour, obesity, hormonal changes, stress and irregular sleep patterns have all been linked with chronic inflammation.

Diet also plays a key role. A typical Western diet, which is high in ultra-processed foods such as packaged baked goods, soft drinks, fast food, processed meats and confectionery, and low in fresh fruits and vegetables, has been strongly linked with higher levels of inflammation.

Can anti-inflammatory diets help?

Yes. What we eat can influence inflammation in the body. Diets rich in fruits, vegetables, wholegrains, legumes and healthy fats – and low in highly processed foods and added sugars – are associated with lower levels of inflammation.

The Mediterranean-style diet is the most researched example. It’s packed with vegetables, fruits, wholegrains, nuts, seeds and olive oil, with moderate amounts of fish, chicken, eggs and dairy, and minimal red or processed meat and added sugars.

In 2022, researchers reviewed the best available evidence and found people following a Mediterranean-type diet had lower levels of inflammatory markers in their blood, suggesting it can help reduce chronic inflammation.

Growing research also suggests diets high in processed foods and low in fibre can change the balance of bacteria in the gut, which may contribute to low-level, chronic inflammation.

Where TikTok gets it right… and wrong

Right: probiotics may help

Many TikTok videos recommend probiotic supplements to lower inflammation, and there is emerging science to support this. A 2020 review of randomised controlled trials (the strongest form of evidence) found probiotics may reduce some inflammatory blood markers in both healthy people and those living with a health condition.

But while promising, researchers caution more studies are needed to determine which strains and doses are most effective.

Wrong: ‘avoid lists’ (gluten, dairy) without a medical reason

TikTok advice to avoid dairy or gluten to reduce inflammation isn’t backed by strong science for most people.

Inflammation from dairy or gluten typically only occurs in those with allergies or coeliac disease, in which case, medical dietary restriction is necessary. Cutting them out without cause risks unnecessary nutrient gaps.

For the general population, systematic reviews show dairy products often have neutral or even protective effects on inflammation.

Plus, foods such as yogurt, kefir and certain cheeses are rich in probiotics, which are helpful in reducing inflammation.

Many people believe cutting out gluten will lower chronic inflammation and avoid it to help with gut issues or fatigue.

But there’s little scientific evidence to back this up. In fact, wholegrain consumption has been shown to positively affect health status by improving inflammation.

A Mediterranean-style diet already avoids most processed, gluten-heavy foods such as cakes, pastries, white bread, fast food and packaged snacks. If you feel sensitive to gluten, this way of eating naturally keeps your intake low, without the need to cut out nutritious wholegrains that can benefit your health.

Who might benefit from an anti-inflammatory diet?

For people with certain medical conditions, an anti-inflammatory eating pattern can play a useful role alongside conventional care.

Research suggests potential benefits for conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, autoimmune conditions and arthritis, where chronic inflammation contributes to symptoms or disease progression.

In these cases, dietary approaches should be guided by an accredited practising dietitian to ensure that changes are safe, balanced and tailored to individual needs.

The bottom line for healthy people

If you’re otherwise healthy, you don’t need to cut out entire food groups to reduce inflammation.

Instead, focus on balance, variety and minimally processed foods: essentially a Mediterranean-style eating pattern. Support your body’s natural defences with a colourful plate full of vegetables and fruit, enough fibre, healthy fats such as olive oil and nuts. No TikTok “avoid list” required.

Alongside a balanced diet, being physically active, getting good-quality sleep, drinking only minimal alcohol and not smoking all help the body keep inflammation in check. These healthy habits work together to strengthen the immune system and lower the risk of chronic disease.

Lauren Ball receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Health and Wellbeing Queensland, Heart Foundation, Gallipoli Medical Research and Mater Health, Springfield City Group. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.

Emily Burch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Do TikTok ‘anti-inflammatory diets’ really work? – https://theconversation.com/do-tiktok-anti-inflammatory-diets-really-work-265089

September 23, 2025

Fish ‘fingerprints’ in the ocean reveal which species are moving homes due to climate change

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Chloe Hayes, Postdoctoral Researcher in Marine Ecology, University of Adelaide

Blackblotched porcupinefish (_Diodon liturosus_). Glen Whisson/iNaturalist, CC BY-ND

Species across the planet are on the move. Climate change has already caused more than 12,000 species to shift their homes across land, freshwater and the sea. They move to escape unfavourable conditions or to explore ecosystems that were previously inaccessible.

In the ocean, some tropical fish are “packing their bags” and moving into temperate reefs to seek cooler waters. These migrations are already happening along the east coast of Australia, which is considered one of the fastest-warming marine regions on Earth. New coral and fish species are regularly arriving in Sydney’s oceans, and this is expected to increase with future climate change.

These newcomers are traditionally monitored through visual surveys by researchers or citizen scientists. But many of these early arrivals are small, rare, nocturnal or live in caves, which means they can be easily missed. As a result, we may be underestimating the true rate of species on the move.

That is where our new research, published in Diversity and Distributions, comes in. We took off our marine ecologist hats and became forensic scientists, searching the water for clues about species on the move. By analysing fragments of DNA drifting in the ocean, we set out to discover the hidden shifts in fish communities that traditional visual surveys can overlook.

Genetic fingerprints floating in the ocean

Every organism leaves behind traces of itself in the environment. Fish shed mucus, scales and waste – all of which contain DNA. By collecting and filtering samples of seawater, we can extract this environmental DNA – or eDNA, as it’s more commonly known – and identify the species that are there.

The technique works much like forensic science. Just as detectives solve crimes by analysing fingerprints or hair left at a scene, ecologists can build a picture of marine life from the genetic fingerprints floating invisibly in the ocean.

Small vials of water in a grey holder. — Samples of eDNA can hold invisible genetic fingerprints of hundreds of species.
Chloe Hayes

The idea of eDNA began in the 1980s when scientists discovered they could collect DNA directly from soil or water samples. At first it was used to study microbes. But by the early 2000s researchers realised it could also reveal larger animals and plants.

Today, eDNA is being used everywhere – from soil to rivers and oceans – to discover hidden or threatened species, track biodiversity, and even study ancient ecosystems preserved in sediments.

Surveying 2,000km of coastline

To test how well eDNA can reveal species on the move, we surveyed fish communities along 2,000 kilometres of Australia’s east coast. Our sites ranged from the tropical reefs of the Great Barrier Reef, through to subtropical waters, and down to the temperate kelp forests of New South Wales.

At each site, we conducted traditional visual surveys, swimming along defined rectangular areas known as transect belts and recording every fish we saw. These surveys remain the standard for monitoring marine biodiversity and have built decades of valuable data.

A diver swimming along a path through kelp. — Visual surveys remain the standard for monitoring marine biodiversity.
Angus Mitchell

Alongside these surveys, we collected bottles of seawater for DNA analysis. A few litres of water might not look like much, but it holds invisible genetic fingerprints of hundreds of species.

Back in the lab, we filtered the samples to capture the DNA, then sequenced them to reveal a snapshot of which species were in the area.

Detecting tropical species in temperate ecosystems

When we compared traditional visual surveys with eDNA water samples, the results were interesting. Each method revealed a somewhat different fish community, but together they gave us a far more complete picture than either method could on its own.

The eDNA detected tropical species in temperate ecosystems that had never been recorded there before. These included herbivores such as the lined surgeonfish (Acanthurus lineatus), the striated surgeonfish (Ctenochaetus striatus), and the common parrotfish (Scarus psittacus), and cryptic species such as the black-blotched porcupinefish (Diodon liturosus), the silver sweeper (Pempheris schwenkii), and the speckled squirrelfish (Sargocentron punctatissimum) that hide in caves or only emerge at night.

These are exactly the kinds of fish divers are most likely to miss.

A red fish swimming near rocks. — The speckled squirrelfish (*Sargocentron punctatissimum*) is a cryptic tropical species that had never been recorded in temperate ecosystems before.
kueda/iNaturalist, CC BY-NC-SA

For temperate species, this pattern flipped. Divers were often better at detecting them than eDNA was. This showed us eDNA is not a replacement for traditional visual surveys, but a powerful complement. By combining the two, we can better track species on the move, giving us the clearest view yet of how climate change is reshaping our reefs.

These migrations are not unique to Australia. Around the world, species are shifting their ranges as climate change alters temperatures, ocean currents and habitats. While some species may thrive in their new homes, others may struggle to adapt, or be pushed out.

Tracking these shifts is crucial for understanding how climate change is transforming our oceans, and it means we need better ways to detect which species are on the move.

Ivan Nagelkerken receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

Angus Mitchell, Chloe Hayes, and David Booth do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Fish ‘fingerprints’ in the ocean reveal which species are moving homes due to climate change – https://theconversation.com/fish-fingerprints-in-the-ocean-reveal-which-species-are-moving-homes-due-to-climate-change-264683

September 23, 2025

Even as Jimmy Kimmel returns to the airwaves, TV networks remain more vulnerable to political pressure than ever before

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Sage Meredith Goodwin, Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for American Political History and Technology, Purdue University

ABC briefly suspended ‘Jimmy Kimmel Live!’ after the host made controversial remarks about the shooting of conservative activist Charlie Kirk. Emma McIntyre/Getty Images for Turner

“Is there any way we can screw him?” asked President Richard M. Nixon.

“We’ve been trying to,” an aide replied, alluding to the White House’s efforts to remove from the airwaves an ABC talk show host whose critiques of the administration had placed that “son of a b—h” on the chief executive’s enemies list.

Over 50 years ago, Nixon and his team sought to use the full weight of the federal government – with calls to network executives, Federal Communications Commission complaints, IRS audits and FBI investigations – to silence “The Dick Cavett Show.”

Cavett, who seemed to personify the liberalism that Nixon despised, had drawn the president’s ire by platforming anti-war activists like John Kerry and Jane Fonda, along with left-wing radicals such as Stokely Carmichael.

Nixon ultimately failed in his attempt to silence Cavett. ABC executives were committed to independent media, while the broadcasting industry as a whole had garnered the attention and trust of an enormous audience, which insulated them from political pressure.

It’s a sharp contrast to President Donald Trump’s second term, during which he has loudly announced his desire to rid the nation’s televisions of his critics, and is making headway in doing so. In July 2025, CBS announced the cancellation of Stephen Colbert’s late night show. While the network maintained this was “purely a financial decision” based on ratings, it came in the wake of Colbert mocking both the president and the network.

“I hear Kimmel is next,” Trump crowed in the days after. Lo and behold, ABC briefly suspended Jimmy Kimmel on Sept. 17 over comments the comedian made about the response to the murder of right-wing activist Charlie Kirk. The suspension was lifted five days later, after it generated widespread backlash and became a flash point for free speech debates in the U.S.

But why has Trump been able to shake up late-night TV in ways Nixon never could?

It’s tempting to think of the network era – those decades in the 20th century when CBS, NBC and ABC dominated television – as a golden age of independent broadcasting and free expression.

However, as political historians of media, we know from our research that TV has always been a battleground of politics, business interests and broadcasting ideals.

The apparent appeasement of Trump by network executives shows just how much has changed in both the media and regulatory landscape since Nixon’s time.

Television’s decline

Direct pressure from the White House was the immediate catalyst for ABC’s decision to briefly pull the plug on Kimmel.

Brendan Carr, the chair of the FCC, threatened ABC and its affiliates while speaking on the podcast of right-wing commentator Benny Johnson.

“These companies can find ways to change conduct to take action on Kimmel,” he said, “or, you know, there’s going to be additional work for the FCC ahead.” Soon, Nexstar and Sinclair, which own dozens of ABC affiliates, announced that they would pull the show, forcing ABC to act.

That said, network television’s fading place in the American media ecosystem probably made the call a whole lot easier.

When Nixon was trying to nix “The Dick Cavett Show,” the program averaged 5 million viewers a night. The rival “Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson” regularly pulled in 11 million viewers.

Yet even Cavett’s relatively smaller audience is more than double what Kimmel and his colleagues in late night television can count on today.

The rise of cable loosened the networks’ chokehold on TV news and entertainment in the late 20th century. The internet – followed by the advent of podcasts, streaming and social media – merely accelerated this trend.

By the 2010s, more viewers were watching clips of late night talk shows on their phones and computers than on television. Today, over 40% of people under 30 say they don’t watch broadcast or cable TV.

Kimmel does have over 20 million subscribers on YouTube and millions more on social media, but ABC has struggled to monetize this following.

In short, late night is no longer the TV crown jewel it once was. As a result, it’s far easier for executives to decide to cut the cord on a Kimmel or a Colbert.

Deregulation and consolidation

Broadcasting has always been a business where those at the top are swayed by the bottom line.

But back in Cavett’s day, top decision-makers at the networks were still dyed-in-the-wool broadcasting executives. Leonard Goldenson, the president of ABC whom Nixon’s aides hounded, had created the network from scratch and was invested in the ideals of independent media. Over at CBS, founder William S. Paley had spent decades building the network’s brand and reputation and held similar beliefs. They wanted to shield the respectability of their networks, which made them more resolute when confronted with political attacks.

Now, however, the ultimate decisions about what happens at ABC and CBS are made by executives at the megacorporations that own them.

Decades of deregulation – in particular, the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which spurred a wave of media mergers and consolidation – have allowed broadcasting today to be dominated by a handful of massive conglomerates. They own not only the networks, but also studios, cable channels and internet services.

These media giants need government approval to further expand their empires. This includes the US$8 billion merger that made Paramount Skydance the owner of CBS in summer 2025 – a deal that was approved just a week after CBS announced the cancellation of “The Late Show with Stephen Colbert.” Disney, which owns ABC, also has major deals pending that require the government’s go-ahead.

If the ultimate goal is ever-increasing profits for shareholders, getting rid of a late night show may seem like a small price to pay – especially if a particular program threatens the government’s sign-off on a massive deal.

Charging ‘liberal bias’

The decline of ratings and media consolidation has left television more vulnerable to attempts at political intimidation than ever before.

Trump is far from the first conservative to use the television networks as a political punching bag. His strategy of tarring national broadcasters with the brush of “liberal media bias” can be traced back to right-wing media activists who, as early as the 1940s, argued that the mainstream media shut out conservative ideas and voices.

Elderly female holds sign reading 'Disney/ABC bows to Trump extortion.' — People protest in New York City against ABC’s decision to suspend Jimmy Kimmel from his late night show.
Stephanie Keith/Getty Images

Nixon, convinced that the nation’s television industry was against him, brought those tactics to the White House. In public, he relied on his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to slam the networks as part of an irresponsibly hostile liberal “unelected elite” with “vast power.” In private, Nixon abused the office of the presidency to harass and intimidate broadcasting reporters, directors and executives.

These tactics largely failed. But in Nixon’s wake, partisan media activists like former Fox News executive Roger Ailes and radio host Rush Limbaugh continued to popularize the idea of “liberal media bias” within the conservative movement.

Today, Trump’s charges of “liberal bias” or “fake news” galvanize his supporters – and make media executives sweat – because they’re a key part of modern right-wing identity.

But the president’s no-holds-barred approach is unprecedented. By threatening broadcasting licenses, instigating investigations and filing lawsuits – all while declaring the mainstream media “the enemy of the people” – Trump has turned the dial up to 11.

His administration’s success in temporarily getting Kimmel off the air is obviously one more chapter in an ongoing crisis for free speech. Unfortunately, given the trends in the relationship between American media and politics over the past half-century, it likely won’t be the last.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Even as Jimmy Kimmel returns to the airwaves, TV networks remain more vulnerable to political pressure than ever before – https://theconversation.com/even-as-jimmy-kimmel-returns-to-the-airwaves-tv-networks-remain-more-vulnerable-to-political-pressure-than-ever-before-265653

September 22, 2025

No hay respiro: la contaminación del aire afecta a la salud mental

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Jorge Romero-Castillo, Profesor de Psicobiología e investigador en Neurociencia Cognitiva, Universidad de Málaga

Lo que inhalamos en las ciudades dista mucho de ser una bocanada de aire fresco. Sabemos desde hace tiempo que la contaminación del aire daña pulmones y corazón, aumentando el riesgo de enfermedades respiratorias y cardiovasculares.

Sin embargo, la evidencia científica va más allá: también se ha demostrado que la polución impacta en el cerebro. Por ejemplo, aumenta la posibilidad de padecer ictus, demencias (como el alzhéimer) y deterioro cognitivo.

Leer más:
La contaminación del aire podría aumentar el riesgo de sufrir alzhéimer y otras demencias

En esta línea, cada vez más estudios señalan su influencia directa en trastornos psicológicos. De entre los investigados, se ha encontrado relación con ansiedad, depresión e incluso suicidio.

Pequeñas y letales

El *smog* es una palabra formada por la fusión entre *smoke*, humo, y *fog*, niebla. Es un tipo de contaminación muy presente en las grades ciudades del mundo. La imagen muestra la ciudad china de Fanhe con *smog* (a la izquierda) y sin *smog* (a la derecha), unas imágenes tomadas con 10 días de diferencia.
Wikipedia, CC BY-NC-SA

El aire contiene partículas microscópicas, llamadas material particulado (PM), cuya toxicidad y tamaño determinan sus efectos sobre la salud. Para la salud mental, son especialmente relevantes:

Las partículas finas, que miden 2,5 micrómetros o menos (PM₂.₅): se producen como resultado de la actividad natural y antropogénica (especialmente, la que genera carbono negro u hollín), incluyendo emisiones vehiculares, incendios forestales, emisiones de centrales térmicas, etc. El smog está cargado con estas partículas.
Las particulas ultrafinas, que miden 0,1 micrómetros o menos (PM₀.₁): se generan por combustión de diésel, procesos industriales (nanopartículas metálicas como hierro, cobre o zinc) o humo de tabaco, entre otras. Son más peligrosas, ya que no se filtran a su paso por la nariz, pero están menos estudiadas.

Para imaginar el tamaño de las partículas, piense que el cabello humano promedio tiene un diámetro aproximado de 70 micrómetros. Esta imagen muestra diferentes tipos de partículas para comparar su tamaño.
Kumar, S., & Dwivedi, S. K. (2022), CC BY

Tanto las partículas finas como las ultrafinas pueden alcanzar los alveolos pulmonares, entrar en la sangre para llegar a la cabeza e internarse en el cerebro atravesando la barrera hematoencefálica. Incluso pueden ingresar directamente al cerebro (eludiendo la barrera) a través de las neuronas presentes en el interior de la nariz, en el epitelio olfatorio.

¿Qué ocurre en el cerebro?

Aunque los desencadenantes biológicos que produce la presencia de estas partículas en el cerebro siguen siendo en gran parte desconocidos, se han identificado varios mecanismos:

Un aumento del estrés oxidativo y la consecuente inflamación (como respuesta funcional de la astroglia, los capilares cerebrales y, en particular, la microglia). Estos procesos se han observado en estudios con humanos y en modelos animales, y resultan especialmente importantes en el caso de los trastornos de ansiedad y depresivos.
Un efecto neurotóxico directo, que lleva a cambios estructurales. Esta situación compromete la conectividad neuronal y el equilibrio de neurotransmisores. Al parecer, las partículas de plomo, mercurio, manganeso y de combustión del diésel podrían causar este efecto neurotóxico y contribuir al riesgo de suicidio.
La alteración del eje hipotalámico-hipofisario-adrenal (HPA), el sistema que regula las respuestas del organismo al estrés. Las partículas contaminantes pueden afectar a la producción de hormonas, como el cortisol, e interferir en el equilibrio neuroendocrino, lo que puede correlacionarse con ansiedad, depresión y suicidio.

Ansiedad disparada por la polución

Los trastornos de ansiedad son el tipo más común de trastorno psiquiátrico en la población general. Y uno de los factores de riesgo modificables es la polución del aire.

Una mayor exposición a PM₂.₅ se asocia con un mayor riesgo de síntomas elevados de ansiedad. Además, un estudio longitudinal en población infantil y adolescente muestra que no solo la exposición prolongada a la polución tiene consecuencias: incluso picos puntuales de contaminación pueden derivar en un aumento inmediato de la ansiedad.

Por si fuera poco, la exposición crónica a niveles elevados de partículas finas no solo incrementa el riesgo de ansiedad, sino que también agrava la sintomatología en quienes ya la padecen. Estudios en grandes cohortes han sugerido que vivir en áreas con peor calidad del aire aumenta la probabilidad de necesitar tratamiento por ansiedad.

Cuando la contaminación del aire es deprimente

La mala calidad del aire también se asocia a tasas aparentemente más altas de depresión mayor, un trastorno muy presente en el mundo y que puede desembocar en suicidio.

La consistencia de los hallazgos en distintos países y contextos respalda la solidez de esta relación. Tanto la exposición a corto plazo como a largo plazo a PM₂.₅ (además de a otros contaminantes) es problemática.

El riesgo es aún más elevado en personas que sufren enfermedades cardiovasculares, diabetes o asma. Esta relación sugiere que la contaminación podría actuar como un factor que golpea con más fuerza a las poblaciones más frágiles.

Un aire envenenado puede aumentar el suicidio

La exposición a corto plazo al aire sucio (en especial, a PM₂.₅ y a partículas inhalables PM₁₀) se ha asociado positivamente con suicidios intentados y consumados. La relación se evalúa vinculando la concentración media de material particulado en los momentos previos al lugar del suicidio con datos extraídos de las autopsias.

En esta línea, también se ha hallado que un aumento transitorio del material particulado aumenta el riesgo de suicidio en personas con enfermedades cardiovasculares preexistentes. Además, se ha observado que el riesgo relativo de suicidio es significativamente mayor en los países de ingresos altos que en los de ingresos bajos.

De momento, estas conclusiones deben interpretarse con cautela, ya que existen limitaciones en los estudios analizados. Pero las direcciones van en la misma línea que se observa en el resto de investigaciones: un aire envenenado daña la vida.

Leer más:
Respirar aire limpio, un derecho universal que se sigue vulnerando en todo el mundo

Una amenaza sibilina

Ha pasado tiempo desde que R. E. L. Faris y H. W. Dunham observaran, en 1939, que la población del centro de Chicago presentaba mayores tasas de esquizofrenia en comparación con la de las afueras. Desde entonces, la ciencia no ha hecho más que reforzar la idea que subyace a este estudio, uno de los primeros que mostró indicios de relación entre contaminación del aire y trastornos psicológicos.

En la actualidad, millones de personas viven expuestas a este riesgo. La evidencia es clara: una sombra silenciosa, persistente y dañina que impregna desde la infancia hasta la vejez. Y la respuesta debe ser contundente: necesitamos políticas públicas firmes y decisiones personales responsables. Sin más demora. Necesitamos, de verdad, un respiro.

Jorge Romero-Castillo no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

– ref. No hay respiro: la contaminación del aire afecta a la salud mental – https://theconversation.com/no-hay-respiro-la-contaminacion-del-aire-afecta-a-la-salud-mental-263758

September 22, 2025

¡Yo también soy buena en matemáticas! Esta es la manera de enseñar que cambia actitudes

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Pablo Beltrán-Pellicer, Profesor del área de Didáctica de la matemática, Universidad de Zaragoza

Piense en matemáticas, y más concretamente en la clase de matemáticas: ¿ha pensado en operaciones, fórmulas y ejercicios? Es lo habitual. Y sin embargo, tienen mucho más que ver con razonar, comunicar, resolver problemas, representar. Poner el foco de la enseñanza en uno u otro lado afecta a las emociones, el autoconcepto (si pensamos que se nos dan bien o mal) y las creencias del alumnado hacia las matemáticas de diferente manera.

Hemos investigado esas tres dimensiones (emociones, autoconcepto y creencias) cuando las clases de matemáticas pasan de tener un enfoque “instrumental” (basado en reglas y procedimientos aplicados sin significado) a uno “relacional” (fundamentado en una comprensión profunda de los contenidos). Y hemos comprobado que el segundo permite al alumnado vivir la asignatura de una manera más positiva, a sentirse más competentes en matemáticas y a construir una visión más rica de lo que significa hacerlas.

Si es objetivamente mejor, ¿por qué es tan difícil de adoptar este modelo en la clase de matemáticas? Los avances curriculares, las orientaciones internacionales y la literatura científica inciden en su importancia, pero el profesorado a menudo prefiere repetir modelos de enseñanza similares a los que experimentó en su día como estudiante, y los libros de texto no suelen favorecer este enfoque.

Un punto de partida instrumental

Basta echar un vistazo a los libros de texto habituales para comprobar que la enseñanza de las matemáticas, tanto en primaria como secundaria, sigue estando marcada por un enfoque instrumental: “Esto se hace así, ejercita, repite”.

Esto es precisamente lo que nos encontramos al analizar redacciones de un grupo de 19 estudiantes a comienzo de 4º de primaria: la mayoría describía las matemáticas como una asignatura centrada en operaciones. “Los problemas son multiplicaciones, sumas, restas…”, escribía un alumno.

En estas redacciones, los alumnos percibían su competencia en matemáticas como baja. Las emociones, cuando eran positivas, se limitaban a un “me gustan” sin mayor profundidad. El mensaje era claro: las matemáticas eran ejercicios aritméticos rutinarios que había que superar. No se hacían referencias al razonamiento y a la comprensión.

El giro hacia la resolución de problemas

En un modelo de enseñanza instrumental se fomenta una comprensión superficial de los contenidos, pues el aprendizaje de estos requiere de la memorización de una serie de reglas. ¿Quién no ha escuchado alguna vez la frase “no hace falta que lo entiendas ahora, simplemente hazlo”? Incluso en películas como Recuerdos del ayer (1991) aparece esta tendencia.

Las tareas a realizar suelen ser rutinarias, ejercicios, mientras que los problemas se reducen en muchas ocasiones a ejercicios con contexto que actúa como decorado, sin aportar. Es posible que en este modelo aparezcan problemas genuinos al final, que supongan un reto y para los que no haya una regla directa de resolución.

Leer más:
Por qué los problemas de matemáticas son un rollo (y cómo evitarlo)

Por el contrario, en un modelo relacional se persigue una comprensión profunda de los contenidos. El objetivo ya no es aprenderse una serie de reglas sin significado, sino conectar la experiencia previa para construir nuevo conocimiento.

Para ello es imprescindible movilizar procesos que indican actividad matemática de calidad: resolución de problemas; razonamiento, conjetura y prueba; argumentación; comunicación; representación; conexiones dentro y fuera de las matemáticas. El aprendizaje a través de la resolución de problemas implica que el alumnado se enfrenta a problemas auténticos, cuidadosamente seleccionados, sin haber recibido instrucción previa que los convierta en ejercicios. Es en la resolución de estos problemas, con el adecuado andamiaje por parte del profesorado (normalmente en forma de preguntas), donde emerge el nuevo contenido.

Por ejemplo, calcular el área un cuadrado “inclinado” en una cuadrícula, es todo un problema. Si no se conoce el teorema de Pitágoras, claro:

Cálculo del área de un cuadrado inclinado en una cuadrícula de dos formas distintas

En la imagen podemos ver dos técnicas puestas en juego por el alumnado para resolverlo. Este problema da lugar a una extensión directa, pues si se plantea investigar el área de cuadrados con diferentes “inclinaciones”, la generalización te pone en bandeja el famoso teorema. Obsérvese que si primero se proporciona el teorema, como se haría en un modelo instrumental, el problema se convierte en un ejercicio rutinario.

Trabajando con el enfoque relacional

A lo largo del curso, nuestro grupo de 19 estudiantes trabajó con un modelo relacional, centrado en la resolución de problemas y en metodologías como las thinking classrooms, también conocidas en español como aulas para pensar, que surgen a raíz de un libro del profesor sueco Peter Liljedahl. En dicha obra se recoge una serie de técnicas que facilita la creación de una cultura de aula orientada a la resolución de problemas. Por ejemplo, que el alumnado se enfrente a ellos de pie, en pizarras borrables verticales y en grupos aleatorios de tres. De esta manera, la interacción se multiplica, al mismo tiempo que el docente se hace más consciente de qué está haciendo el alumnado.

El cambio fue radical. En junio, 15 de los 19 alumnos hablaban de las matemáticas como algo que tenía que ver con comprender, pensar, trabajar en grupo y encontrar sentido. Ya no se trataba de cuentas, sino de procesos. Una niña resumía así su experiencia:

“Las matemáticas para mí son poder entender los números. Me gusta trabajar en grupos en las pizarras en vez de hacerlo en solitario”.

Este cambio de enfoque no solo transformó la visión de la asignatura. También aumentó la autopercepción de competencia: seis estudiantes se sentían ahora “buenos en matemáticas”, frente a solo uno al inicio. Y en el plano emocional, 16 de 19 expresaban entusiasmo, diversión y tranquilidad, vinculando sus emociones positivas con actividades concretas como resolver problemas difíciles o colaborar en grupo.

El aula dejó de ser un lugar donde se repiten procedimientos para convertirse en un espacio de exploración y descubrimiento compartido.

El regreso al modelo expositivo

La historia, sin embargo, no acaba ahí. En enero del curso siguiente, ya en 5º de primaria, este mismo alumnado volvió a un enfoque instrumental, basado en ejercicios individuales y enseñanza expositiva. Volvimos a pedir redacciones a principios de curso en las que compartieran sus emociones y creencias sobre la asignatura. El contraste fue inmediato. Menos de la mitad de las redacciones incluían ahora una visión clara de las matemáticas, y muchas reflejaban aburrimiento o desánimo, como indica un alumno:

“Este año las mates son más aburridas porque la mayoría de las veces hacemos cuentas”.

Curiosamente, la percepción de competencia seguía siendo alta: doce alumnos se sentían seguros. Pero las emociones se tornaron negativas para quienes habían disfrutado de un aprendizaje relacional. La incoherencia entre lo que habían vivido antes y lo que ahora encontraban en clase generaba frustración.

Al mismo tiempo, otro grupo de estudiantes mostraba alivio: “No tenemos casi ningún problema difícil… me gustan las matemáticas”. Para algunos, la baja demanda cognitiva resultaba cómoda, aunque poco estimulante.

Lo que nos dicen estos hallazgos

Los resultados de esta pequeña investigación confirman algo que la literatura científica internacional lleva años subrayando: la cultura de aula condiciona la relación del alumnado con las matemáticas. Un enfoque basado en la resolución de problemas no solo proporciona aprendizajes significativos, sino que también fomenta emociones positivas y refuerza la confianza en las propias capacidades. Por el contrario, volver a un modelo instrumental puede erosionar ese vínculo, especialmente en quienes han descubierto que las matemáticas pueden ser algo más que cuentas.

Este artículo está basado en una investigación en la que ha colaborado Manuel Jesús Siaba-Lestón, maestro en el CEIP Plurilingüe Ricardo Tobío, Esteiro-Muros (La Coruña).

Pablo Beltrán-Pellicer recibe fondos del grupo S60_23R -Investigación en Educación Matemática (Gobierno de Aragón).

Sergio Martínez-Juste recibe fondos del grupo S60_23R -Investigación en Educación Matemática (Gobierno de Aragón).

Gregorio Morales Ordóñez no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

– ref. ¡Yo también soy buena en matemáticas! Esta es la manera de enseñar que cambia actitudes – https://theconversation.com/yo-tambien-soy-buena-en-matematicas-esta-es-la-manera-de-ensenar-que-cambia-actitudes-265224

September 22, 2025

Cuando el Corán coincide con la OMS: así influye la religión en la lactancia materna

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By José Manuel Martínez Linares, Profesor de Enfermería, Universidad de Granada

Siguen existiendo barreras para la lactancia materna. Si todas las criaturas entre los 0 y 6 meses de edad estuvieran amamantadas de forma óptima, se podría salvar la vida a más de 820 000 cada año. Sin embargo, la realidad es que solo el 44 % reciben alimentación mediante lactancia materna exclusiva durante los primeros seis meses de vida.

En España, más del 90 % de las mujeres deciden iniciar la lactancia materna en el momento del nacimiento, pero únicamente el 35 % sigue haciéndolo a los 6 meses, a pesar de los beneficios que mantenerla les puedan suponer.

A pesar de la evidencia existente, persisten las barreras que dificultan la promoción de la lactancia materna exclusiva. Por ejemplo, el escaso apoyo laboral para que las mujeres puedan seguir realizándola. También falta preparación previa antes del parto y los mitos que mantienen la idea de que la lactancia materna exclusiva es insuficiente para satisfacer al bebé. Todo esto sin olvidar la falta de disponibilidad de recursos humanos, materiales y económicos, [así como de personal sanitario correctamente preparado], a pesar de que lo hay (https://internationalbreastfeedingjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13006-024-00630-3).

No alcanzar los objetivos marcados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) en lo que respecta a la lactancia genera pérdidas. Estas pueden ser económicas, de 302 000 millones de dólares anuales, pero también se malogran los beneficios que genera para el bebé, la madre, la sociedad y el medio ambiente. La OMS recomienda la lactancia materna de forma exclusiva durante los primeros 6 meses de vida y de forma complementaria hasta los 2 años.

Aunque los programas de promoción de lactancia materna exclusiva llevados a cabo por profesionales de la matronería han demostrado su utilidad, esto no es suficiente. También deben incorporar un asesoramiento sobre los motivos que influyen en las mujeres en la elección y el abandono de la lactancia materna exclusiva.

La religión es una parte más a tener en cuenta

Las personas pueden concebir y vivir sus creencias religiosas como parte de su ser de forma holística. No tenerlo en cuenta en la práctica clínica puede considerarse como una falta de interés por parte del profesional sanitario y convertirse en una barrera para la comunicación y la creación de confianza.

En cambio, se ha comprobado que las tasas de lactancia materna exclusiva al nacer difieren según la creencia religiosa de la madre. Así, la adherencia es mayor entre las mujeres musulmanas en comparación con las cristianas.

Esto se explica porque la lactancia materna también se puede ver influida por prácticas y creencias culturales. Por lo tanto, en la promoción del amamantamiento hay que tener en cuenta factores religiosos y culturales que van a condicionar no solo el inicio, sino también su mantenimiento, tal y como reflejan los estudios realizados al respecto.

Nuevos hallazgos sobre este tema

Recientemente hemos llevado a cabo un estudio con mujeres musulmanas y cristianas de Melilla. Los resultados indican que, independientemente de su ideología religiosa, la reincorporación a la actividad laboral tras el parto es el momento que condiciona la continuidad de la lactancia materna. Este es, por lo tanto, un factor determinante para abandonarla.

Sin embargo, las mujeres musulmanas practicantes mantienen en una mayor proporción la lactancia materna hasta los dos años de edad de la criatura porque así se indica en el Corán. En las mujeres cristianas, independientemente de que se identifiquen como practicantes o no, no suele ocurrir así.

El apoyo que las mujeres reciben por parte de sus parejas y familiares también ayuda a continuar con la lactancia. A este respecto, para todas mujeres, “la tradición del biberón” familiar influye en el abandono de esa práctica. La pareja y la madre son personas fundamentales para el abandono o continuidad del amamantamiento, a quienes hay que añadir la suegra en el caso de las mujeres musulmanas.

Las recomendaciones y experiencias de la suegra pueden decantar tanto el abandono como la continuidad de este tipo de alimentación. En este sentido, las mujeres musulmanas cuentan, además de con el mandato coránico, lo que genera una mayor influencia social y apoyo.

Tener conocimientos sobre lactancia materna también contribuye. Es en el programa de preparación al parto y la maternidad donde este conocimiento se puede adquirir, a partir de la información proporcionada por el personal de matronería. Sin embargo, las mujeres musulmanas acuden en menor medida a este tipo de atención que se oferta. En cambio, las mujeres cristianas que sí suelen acudir, sobre todo si se trata de su primer embarazo, aseguraron que les proporciona seguridad a la hora de comenzar a dar lactancia materna, las empoderaba y les hacía aumentar la confianza en sí mismas para poder hacerlo.

Queda mucho trabajo por delante

Los organismos internacionales y nacionales en materia de salud dicen que la lactancia materna es la mejor forma para alimentar a una criatura. A pesar de que hay organizaciones de profesionales de la sanidad que trabajan por ello, los motivos de su abandono siguen siendo los mismos. La incorporación al trabajo o creer que la leche producida no alimenta, son algunos de ellos.

Además, sigue sin haber profesionales de la matronería de referencia, tanto en atención primaria como en atención hospitalaria, cuya función principal sea dedicar el tiempo necesario a concienciar, ayudar y acompañar a las embarazadas y madres. Todo ello terminaría repercutiendo en un ahorro para la madre, la familia, el sistema sanitario y el medio ambiente en general, con independencia de la religión que profesen las familias.

Las personas firmantes no son asalariadas, ni consultoras, ni poseen acciones, ni reciben financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y han declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado anteriormente.

– ref. Cuando el Corán coincide con la OMS: así influye la religión en la lactancia materna – https://theconversation.com/cuando-el-coran-coincide-con-la-oms-asi-influye-la-religion-en-la-lactancia-materna-264825

September 22, 2025

Los Estados reaccionan contra Israel: estas son las medidas que se han tomado y los países que las han puesto en marcha

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Irene Vázquez Serrano, Profesora de Derecho Internacional Público y Relaciones Internacionales, Universidad de Murcia

Panorama de edificios destruidos en Gaza. tayifmukta/Shutterstock

El pasado 8 de septiembre, Volker Türk, Alto Comisionado de la ONU para los Derechos Humanos, se preguntaba: “¿Dónde están las medidas decisivas para prevenir el genocidio?”. Ese día, el presidente del Ejecutivo español, Pedro Sánchez, anunciaba la adopción de un paquete de medidas con la finalidad de frenar “el genocidio en Gaza” cometido por Israel, situándose España en la primera línea de lucha contra los crímenes cometidos contra el pueblo palestino.

Las medidas son estas:

Aprobación de un Real Decreto Ley prohibiendo la compra y venta de armas a Israel previsto, de facto, desde octubre de 2023. El 14 de julio ya hubo un acuerdo entre los socios del Ejecutivo para a`robar una ley, y la recogida de 1 200 firmas, impulsadas por la campaña Fin al Comercio de Armas con Israel, ya solicitaban en Madrid un embargo inmediato.
Prohibición del tránsito de buques que lleven combustible al ejército israelí.
Prohibición, en el espacio aéreo español, de vuelos que lleven material militar a Israel.
Prohibición de entrada al territorio español de personas implicadas directamente en la planificación, ejecución o justificación de actos de genocidio, violaciones de derechos humanos y crímenes de guerra en Gaza.
Prohibición de importación de productos originarios de los asentamientos ilegales israelíes en Gaza y Cisjordania, una demanda recurrente de Francesca Albanese, la relatora Especial de la ONU para los Territorios Palestinos Ocupados.
Reducción de la asistencia consular a los ciudadanos españoles que residen en los asentamientos israelíes ilegales en Gaza y Cisjordania a la mínima legalmente obligatoria, ya demandada por la Asamblea General de la ONU (resolución de 13 de septiembre de 2024).
Refuerzo del apoyo a la Autoridad Palestina con el incremento de personal en la Misión de Asistencia Fronteriza de la Unión Europea en Rafah y el establecimiento de nuevos proyectos de cooperación en agricultura, seguridad alimenticia y asistencia médica.
Aumento de la financiación de la Agencia de Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados Palestinos en, aproximadamente, 10 millones de euros adicionales.
Incremento de la ayuda humanitaria y la cooperación en Gaza hasta los 150 millones de euros el próximo año 2026.

Tras los pasos de España

La adopción de estas disposiciones por parte de España, que coinciden con la carta abierta firmada en agosto de 2025 por 209 exembajadores y altos funcionarios europeos reclamando medidas “inmediatas” para frenar las acciones de Israel, ha supuesto una irremediable presión sobre otros países.

Eslovenia ha sido el primer Estado europeo en prohibir la importación de productos de asentamientos de colonos israelíes en territorio palestino y la importación, exportación y tránsito a/o desde Israel, habiendo declarado persona non grata a dos ministros del Ejecutivo israelí.
Suecia y Países Bajos, junto a Reino Unido, Canadá, Noruega, Australia y Nueva Zelanda han sancionado a los ministros israelíes Itamar Ben-Gvir (Seguridad) y Bezalel Smotrich (Finanzas) por incitar a la violencia hacia los palestinos en la Cisjordania ocupada.
Bélgica, por su parte, presentó un paquete de medidas condicionadas a la liberación de rehenes por Hamás.
En Noruega, el Fondo de Pensiones del Gobierno Noruego ha retirado sus inversiones de empresas con sede en Israel.

Otras medidas colectivas propuestas

Son varias las iniciativas propuestas por diversos grupos de Estados. Por ejemplo, el borrador de proyecto (junio 2025) elaborado por Argelia, Dinamarca, Grecia, Guyana, Pakistán, Panamá, la República de Corea (Corea del Sur), Sierra Leona, Eslovenia y Somalia que solicitaba al Consejo de Seguridad la aprobación de un alto el fuego inmediato, incondicional y permanente y la liberación incondicional de los rehenes retenidos por Hamás y otros grupos. Sin embargo, Estados Unidos vetó su aprobación.

Más tarde, se celebró en Bogotá la primera conferencia del Grupo de La Haya, formada por ocho Estados –Bolivia, Cuba, Honduras, Senegal, Sudáfrica, Malasia, Namibia y Colombia–, junto a 30 delegaciones estatales y otros organismos de la ONU liderados por Colombia y Sudáfrica. Su finalidad era adoptar seis medidas económicas y diplomáticas: no permitir la provisión de armas a Israel y revisar los contratos públicos para impedir el apoyo indirecto a la ocupación de los territorios palestinos y apoyar a la justicia internacional, entre otras.

En este sentido, el fiscal general del Estado español, Álvaro García Ortiz, ha aprobado la apertura de investigaciones sobre los actos llevados a cabo en Gaza por Israel.

Reconocimiento al Estado de Palestina

Un lugar destacado entre las medidas adoptadas ocupa el reconocimiento del Estado de Palestina el pasado 28 de mayo liderado por España, uniéndose Irlanda, Noruega y Eslovenia –Suecia ya lo hizo en 2014 y Colombia en 2018–. Mientras que Finlandia y Luxemburgo están considerándolo, Francia, Malta y Bélgica lo harán durante la reunión de la Asamblea General de la ONU.

Alemania, Italia, Hungría, República Checa, Bulgaria y Austria siguen siendo contrarios. Sin embargo, el número de Estados que reconocen al Estado de Palestina aumenta cada vez más. Así lo han hecho recientemente Reino Unido, Australia, Canadá, Portugal y Japón.

Irlanda, por su parte, también solicitó la exclusión de Israel de la ONU, algo poco probable al ser necesaria la recomendación del Consejo de Seguridad. Y Colombia rompió relaciones diplomáticas con Israel, creando una delegación diplomática donde tomó posesión el primer embajador colombiano ante el Estado de Palestina.

La necesaria presión internacional

El Observador Permanente del Estado de Palestina ante la ONU, Riyad Mansour, señaló que “lo que puede detener este genocidio es que los Estados tomen medidas inmediatas y reales para disuadir a Israel”. Quizá las recientes recomendaciones de la Comisión Internacional Independiente de Investigación de la ONU sirvan para evitar una escalada mayor de esta barbarie que dura demasiados años ya.

Irene Vázquez Serrano no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

– ref. Los Estados reaccionan contra Israel: estas son las medidas que se han tomado y los países que las han puesto en marcha – https://theconversation.com/los-estados-reaccionan-contra-israel-estas-son-las-medidas-que-se-han-tomado-y-los-paises-que-las-han-puesto-en-marcha-265628