On peut s’étonner que le ministère de l’Éducation de l’Ontario continue d’utiliser le terme « anomalie » pour désigner des élèves dans le cadre de l’éducation spécialisée, malgré les critiques à l’égard de ce terme considéré capacitiste. Employé 87 fois dans un guide officiel encore en circulation, et désormais intégré à la Loi sur l’éducation, ce terme peut véhiculer de la stigmatisation.
Professeure en éducation à l’Université d’Ottawa, je donne des cours aux futures personnes enseignantes, notamment concernant les questions portant sur l’éducation inclusive et le soutien à l’apprentissage. J’utilise la sociologie de l’éducation dans une perspective critique pour comprendre des enjeux d’équité, de diversité, d’inclusion, de justice sociale et de décolonisation liées aux différentes catégories sociales.
Déjà des milliers d’abonnés à l’infolettre de La Conversation. Et vous ? Abonnez-vous gratuitement à notre infolettre pour mieux comprendre les grands enjeux contemporains.
Des élèves atteints d’« anomalies » ?
Le document en question reprend la définition de l’élève « en difficulté » tirée de la Loi sur l’éducation, où il est décrit comme étant « atteint » d’« anomalies ». Plus précisément, il rappelle que cette loi, toujours en vigueur (première version en 1990, dernière mise à jour en 2025), identifie cinq catégories d’« anomalies » pour les élèves dits « en difficulté » : comportementales, communicationnelles, intellectuelles, physiques et multiples.
Selon ce document, il s’agit d’un outil d’« identification » des élèves « ayant des besoins particuliers » concernant « l’enfance en difficulté ». Même si aucune définition générale du terme « anomalie » n’y est proposée, dans les définitions des catégories d’« anomalies », on retrouve des termes tels que « difficulté », « trouble » et « handicap », ainsi que certains termes, tels que « grave », « degré » ou « manque », pour souligner leur intensité.
En 2018, dans sa Politique sur l’éducation accessible aux élèves handicapés, la Commission ontarienne des droits de la personne a mis en garde contre l’usage du terme « anomalie » pour désigner les situations de handicap, estimant qu’il s’agit d’une perspective capacitiste. Pourtant, le terme « anomalie » continue à être utilisé dans les documents gouvernementaux, notamment dans les règlements associés à la Loi sur l’éducation de l’Ontario, comme le Règlement 181/98, où il sert à catégoriser des élèves dans le contexte de l’éducation spécialisée.
Cet enjeu est important parce que les documents gouvernementaux ont une fonction d’orientation, voire normative. Ils servent de lignes directrices pour les institutions dans l’élaboration de leurs politiques et de leurs pratiques.
Pourquoi le terme « anomalie » peut-il être considéré comme capacitiste ?
Le terme « anomalie » peut être considéré capacitiste pour différentes raisons. Voici quatre raisons pouvant être centrales :
Renforcement du modèle médical : le terme « anomalie » provient du discours médical et diagnostique. Il est utilisé pour signaler des « défauts » ou des « irrégularités ». Il implique une déviation par rapport à la norme, renforçant une dichotomie entre « normal » et « anormal ».
Pathologisation de la différence : les systèmes éducatifs contribuent à pathologiser la différence. Ces individus ainsi qualifiés sont vus comme ayant des « problèmes » à corriger ou à gérer, plutôt que comme ayant des droits et des manières légitimes d’être et d’apprendre.
Contradiction avec le modèle social du handicap : le modèle social met l’accent sur le fait que ce sont les barrières systémiques qui produisent le handicap. Ainsi, l’emploi du terme « anomalie » localise le « problème » dans l’individu. Il s’agit d’une pensée déficitaire des élèves, autrement dit, d’une tendance à culpabiliser les élèves de leurs échecs.
Stigmatisation dans le langage : l’utilisation de ce langage courant peut avoir des connotations stigmatisantes, puisque le terme peut être associé à un mauvais phénomène. Par exemple, le dictionnaire définit l’« anomalie » comme étant un « écart » par rapport à la norme, une « exception à la règle », une « irrégularité », une « déviation » du « normal ». Bref, c’est l’« anormal ». C’est pourquoi les termes ici qui sont naturalisés (ex. « anomalie ») sont placés entre guillemets.
Alors, que peut-on faire à ce sujet ?
Je fais une invitation.
À qui ? À l’ensemble des acteurs et actrices sociaux impliqués à divers niveaux : les élèves et leurs pairs, les familles, les organismes communautaires, les universitaires, les écoles, les conseils scolaires, les gouvernements provincial et fédéral et, plus largement, la société dans son ensemble.
À faire quoi ? À adopter une posture non capacitiste à l’égard de la vie des individus, et en particulier ici, des élèves.
Comment ? Par une réflexion critique sur la reproduction des systèmes oppressifs tels que le colonialisme, le racisme, etc., surtout en tenant compte des recherches qui mettent en évidence la surreprésentation des élèves issus de groupes minorisés (ex. élèves noirs, élèves immigrants, etc.) dans l’éducation spécialisée.
Je recommande notamment la mise en place de formations à ce sujet pour les divers groupes impliqués, ainsi que la révision des documents officiels, en reconnaissant que le langage façonne les pratiques et les manières de penser et d’être des individus.
Roberta Soares ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Barbara Cooke, Programme Leader and Senior Lecturer in English, Loughborough University
It’s that time of year again. Flight costs are up, schools are out, and anyone lucky enough to afford a break is heading – literally or metaphorically – for the hills. Some might harbour visions of a beautiful stranger alone in a beach or bar, someone who takes a keen interest in them, gives them the best two weeks of their lives then disappears into the sunset. This is probably what most of us imagine when we think of a holiday romance: something magical and fleeting, but removed from everyday life.
One writer, however, proved in novel after novel that a change of scene can also inspire a lasting change of mind. It might shake the blinkered out of an unhelpful way of seeing the world, or reveal hidden depths in overlooked friends and acquaintances. It can take people away from those who do not appreciate them, and introduce them into new communities in which they thrive.
Jane Austen’s heroines are a nomadic bunch, by and large. The author is known for psychological development, but the emotional and educational progress of her romantic plot lines is almost always kick-started by a series of more literal journeys. Movements between home, “seasons” in the city and prolonged visits to family and friends map out narrative progress towards love.
Following the footsteps of one Austen protagonist, Anne Elliot of Persuasion (1817), reveals how the different narrative locations she inhabits present different opportunities for her to grow in confidence and reclaim a love that she thought lost forever. At the same time, they also enable Frederick Wentworth, her erstwhile fiancé, to reconsider his false assumptions about her and see her in a more truthful (not to mention more flattering) light.
It’s something I explore in my soon-to-be-published book, Love and Landscape: Iconic Meeting Places in Classic and Contemporary Literature.
This article is part of a series commemorating the 250th anniversary of Jane Austen’s birth. Despite having published only six books, she is one of the best-known authors in history. These articles explore the legacy and life of this incredible writer.
When we meet Anne at the beginning of Persuasion, she clearly needs to get out more. She is 26 and unmarried, having been convinced at 19 by her snobbish family to end her engagement to Wentworth.
Now, she is unloved and overlooked by her father and elder sister Elizabeth and, when her family’s profligate spending means they must rent out their home and seek cheaper accommodation, it is a blessing in disguise for Anne.
She goes first to visit her other, married sister in the Somerset village of Uppercross. Mary is as self-centred as Elizabeth and their father, but does at least love and appreciate Anne. Mary’s sisters-in-law, Louisa and Henrietta Musgrove, live nearby with their parents and are fond of her too. Crucially, this kinder branch of Anne’s family is also connected to the now-Captain Wentworth, who has made a good career for himself in the Napoleonic wars and is warmly welcomed into their circle.
Anne’s first move having brought her into better company, she then makes a second journey, with this group, to the coastal town of Lyme Regis. Here, the fresh sea air restores her faded youth, and Wentworth is gratifyingly present when a passing stranger looks at her “with a degree of earnest admiration”.
Anne however is more than a pretty face, and her stay at Lyme also allows her to show off her pragmatism and good judgment when Louisa is knocked unconscious by a bad fall. Wentworth, who blames himself for the accident, benefits directly from Anne’s taking charge of the situation.
Their last move, to Bath, shows the nascent couple carving out small opportunities for intimacy among crowded ballrooms and claustrophobic family gatherings.
When they are finally able confirm their mutual affection, they engineer a retreat to a gravel walk which is only “comparatively quiet and retired”, and count on their fellow walkers being too wrapped up in their own business to pay them much attention.
In Northanger Abbey (1817), Austen’s most satirical novel, it is observed that “if adventures will not befall a young lady in her own village, she must seek them abroad”. In Persuasion, Anne’s particular adventures bring her into a more supportive community, reinvigorate her youth and give her the chance to prove her worth.
In Austen’s footsteps
Over the past two centuries, a huge variety of writers have forged their own romantic plot lines from paths first cut by Anne Elliot, Catherine Morland of Northanger Abbey and Elizabeth Bennet of Pride and Prejudice (1813).
For those whose stories feature marginalised characters, for example, the value of a sympathetic and supportive community becomes even more important. So it is that author Sarah Waters imaginatively reconstructs pockets of Victorian London in Tipping the Velvet (1998) in which queer characters are visible and able to celebrate their love. The South London barbershops and jazz clubs of Open Water (2022) offer a similar respite for Caleb Azumah Nelson’s young Black lovers, who crave spaces in which they can be themselves away from the prejudices and false assumptions of mainstream society.
Jane Austen’s novels perform a kind of romantic alchemy in which travel is the catalyst. From Lyme to Bath, Hertfordshire to the Peak District, her protagonists move through a holiday atmosphere, but the transformations they undergo along the way are anything but fleeting. There might be a depressing uniformity in marriage as the inevitable, final destination, but we are left in no doubt that these are marriages – like Austen’s legacy – are built to last.
This article features references to books that have been included for editorial reasons, and may contain links to bookshop.org. If you click on one of the links and go on to buy something from bookshop.org The Conversation UK may earn a commission.
Looking for something good? Cut through the noise with a carefully curated selection of the latest releases, live events and exhibitions, straight to your inbox every fortnight, on Fridays. Sign up here.
Barbara Cooke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
England has entered its fourth heatwave of 2025. Historical comparisons for our current weather situation have seemed to beach at 1976.
Seared into the memory of many Britons over 55, that was the year when temperatures stuck at 30 degrees and there was no rain for nearly 50 days in a row. As a result, the UK government was forced to ration water. But Britain’s longest dry spell of the 20th century was not the worst for the wider continent.
For heat intensity and human cost across Europe we need to return to 2003. Back further, the heat and drought of 1911 easily eclipsed 1976 for European impact and before that 1757. And, above all, 1540, when there was no rainfall for almost the entire year. German chroniclers recorded that it was possible to walk across the Rhine.
Reaching further into the medieval past, the North Atlantic region passed through a climate anomaly between the 10th and 13th centuries. Research temperatures rose to around one degree celsius above the level that was typical at the turn of the 21st century.
Medieval Europeans became accustomed to hot, dry seasons – and they knew how to endure them.
Sadly, their experience cannot set us on a different course but it may have something to teach us about how to survive. Researchers are beginning to recognise that there are lessons for our own sustainability in the middle ages’ management of the environment, agriculture and food production. The same may be true in how they lived and worked under the sun.
Here are six tips from the middle ages to beat the heat:
1. Work flexibly
In June, July and August, start work at the first light of dawn, advised the 14th-century shepherd, Jehan de Brie, author of Le Bon Berger (The Good Shepherd).
Work would begin and end earlier to avoid the worst heat of the day. Wikimedia
In fact, all three medieval estates – those who worked, prayed and fought – compressed their tasks to the cooler morning hours in the long summer days. Clergy adapted their services to fit a shorter night and longer day and after Corpus Christi (June) their worship year wound down. Knighthood curbed its taste for tournaments. They would never lift a lance in August.
Hats were worn daily for practical as well as social reasons in European society.
Medieval images, manuscript illuminations, murals and panel paintings, gesture at the endless variety of shaped hats, soft caps and hoods they reached for as a matter of course. For high summer, the half-metre brim of a hat like the Swedish Lappvattnett hat may have been the norm.
3. Eat to lower body temperature
In the unrefrigerated world of the middle ages, food could still be cool. Salad leaves (known then as salat) were preferred because they were palatable and digestable in the heat.
Swimming was an increasingly common, communal recreation in later medieval Europe. When monasteries allowed their inmates periods of downtime, besides blood-letting, they encouraged river and sea swimming for health, hygiene and general fitness.
A woodcut fro Everard Digby’s book on swimming.
In late medieval European cities crowded with tens of thousands, the breadth and depth of the Danube, Rhine, Seine and Tiber were an essential lifeline. The medieval theologian Everard Digby’s manual on the Art of Swimming, first published in 1587, described what may have long been a common sight – leaping and diving through the water “just like the summer’s roach”.
5. Use aftersun
Look after those burns. The monks of Citeaux Abbey were chronicled gathering herbs and roots in summer to salve their “perished skin”.
Today we would say a bottle of aftersun or aloe gel will do.
6. Flee
When Emperor Charles V (king of Sicily and Naples from 1516 to 1554) found himself in a sweltering Rome with his young children, who were struggling in the rising temperatures, he made the household leave the city. High society generally left city palazzos to go up country and into shadier climes.
The author Giovanni Boccaccio recalled in his Decameron how the “dames of the city fly off” in summer to their country houses. King Richard II
(1377 until 1399) of England built a summer house at Sheen Palace (now Richmond palace) on the banks of the Thames to escape the close climate of the capital.
Even round-the-clock monastic institutions sometimes broke up and decamped to outlying country priories. Of course, it was rarely an option for those beneath them on the social scale.
Looking for something good? Cut through the noise with a carefully curated selection of the latest releases, live events and exhibitions, straight to your inbox every fortnight, on Fridays. Sign up here.
James Clark does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Kartikeya Walia, Lecturer, Department of Engineering, Nottingham Trent University
You might have noticed that humanoid robots are having a bit of a moment. From Tesla’s Optimus to Figure AI’s Figure 02,
these machines are no longer just science fiction – they’re walking, and in some cases, cartwheeling into the real world.
Now China’s Unitree Robotics, best known for its nimble quadruped robots, has unveiled something that’s turning heads: the Unitree R1.
For one thing, it’s a humanoid robot priced at under US$6,000 (£4,400). That’s not pocket change, but it’s orders of magnitude cheaper than most robots in its class, which can run into tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars.
The R1 packs serious mobility, sensors and AI potential into a package that could fit in a university lab, a workspace – or even, if you’re adventurous, your living room.
Unitree R1.
What can the R1 do?
The Unitree R1 is around 1.2 metres tall and weighs roughly 25kg (similar to a packed suitcase). This makes it compact and relatively easy to move around. It’s equipped with 24 to 26 degrees of freedom (think of these as “joints” that allow it to bend, twist and rotate), giving it a surprisingly human-like range of motion. It can walk, squat, wave, balance, kick and – according to Unitree’s own demos – pull off athletic tricks like cartwheels.
It’s loaded with sensors: cameras to see in 3D, microphones to hear where sounds
are coming from, and wireless connections to talk to other devices. Its built-in
computer can handle both what it sees and hears at the same time, and you can
even give it extra computing power if you buy Nvidia’s Jetson Orin, a high-performance computer often used in AI projects which retails for about £180. It’s like adding a “turbo boost” that lets the robot handle more demanding tasks such as advanced image recognition, real-time decision-making or running complex software like real-time 3D graphics platform Unreal Engine.
Battery life is about an hour, with a quick-release system that lets you swap in a
fresh battery. That’s not a full day’s work, but it’s enough for short bursts of training, testing or demonstration. At least for most research teams, that’s plenty.
Here’s the thing: while the R1’s hardware is impressive, the software is still finding its feet. For example, Unitree’s website says that users need to “understand the limitations” of humanoid robots before making a purchase, reflecting constraints to the robot’s autonomy. This is not unique to Unitree; it’s the state of the humanoid robotics field as a whole. The challenge isn’t just making a robot move; it’s making it understand, adapt and interact safely in unpredictable real-world environments.
Right now, much of what we see in humanoid demos is either scripted routines or teleoperation (remote control). But in research labs, there’s exciting work happening to bridge that gap – from task-specific AI such as teaching a robot to sort packages, to fundamental skills like maintaining balance, responding to uneven terrain, and fine-tuning finger dexterity for delicate object handling.
Humanoid robots like the R1 provide a platform where all these capabilities can be
tested in one body. The hardware says: “I can do it.” The software still has to figure out how.
Why a humanoid form?
Why is it necessary to have humanoid robots at all? Why not just make machines purpose-built for specific tasks? The truth is, there’s a strong argument for both approaches. The humanoid form has a big advantage in social acceptance. People are used to seeing other humans, so a machine with two arms, two legs and a head tends to feel more relatable than a box on wheels or an industrial arm.
In settings like elderly care, hospitality or public assistance, a humanoid robot might be easier for people to interact with – especially if it can use gestures, facial cues or natural conversation.
On the practical side, humanoids are designed to operate in environments built for
humans – climbing stairs, opening doors, using tools. In theory, this means you don’t have to rebuild your home, office or factory for these robots to work there.
But are they always the most practical solution? Not necessarily. A robot with wheels can be faster and more energy-efficient on flat surfaces. A specialised arm can be stronger and more precise in a factory. Humanoids often sacrifice peak efficiency for versatility and familiarity. For many applications, that trade off might be worth it. For others, maybe not.
The Unitree R1 isn’t about replacing people – it’s about making humanoid robotics
more accessible. By lowering costs, it opens the door for universities, small
companies and even hobbyists to explore everything from AI vision and balance
control to dexterous hand movements and creative performances.
Imagine students developing a robot that can walk around a care home, carrying out
small helpful tasks. Or a research team teaching it to work alongside humans in a warehouse without needing elaborate safety cages to protect the humans. Or even artists and performers using it to take part in a show.
The whole robotics community is in a golden age of experimentation. Different AI modes are being tested – some focused on single, repetitive tasks;
others on general adaptability. Some robots are learning to squat and maintain
balance under sudden pushes. Others are developing precise finger movements for
tool use. It’s a worldwide collaborative puzzle, and humanoids like the R1 give
researchers a flexible piece to work with.
For now, the R1 is not “the robot that will change everything.” But it’s a signpost
pointing toward a future where robots like it are much more common, much more
capable, and perhaps … a little more human.
Kartikeya Walia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Toby, a fun-loving Labrador, was a beloved member of the Murphy household. So, when the family noticed patches of hair loss and red, itchy skin on his paws and legs, they were concerned. Still, they thought: “All dogs get itchy sometimes.” A medicated shampoo and a modified diet seemed to help.
But by the following winter, Toby’s condition worsened. He began losing more hair around his head, dropped weight rapidly and his lymph nodes became swollen. The family sought further veterinary help. Blood tests and tissue samples revealed something unexpected: Leishmania infantum, a parasite typically found in southern Europe, transmitted by the bite of sand flies.
Toby had never left the UK, but his owners had visited the Jalón Valley, Spain just months earlier. Toby hadn’t gone with them, but the possibility arose: could an infected sand fly or contaminated item have made its way back in luggage or belongings? Toby was treated and recovered well.
In fact, the international rehoming of animals and routine pet travel are now major contributors to the rise of exotic diseases in domestic animals. In one large group of imported dogs, more than a quarter tested positive for conditions not typically seen in the UK, including heartworm Dirofilaria immitis. Spread by mosquitoes, heartworm damages the heart and lungs of dogs. Once restricted to southern Europe, it is now being reported in central and eastern Europe, with sporadic cases further north and west.
African Horse Sickness, a midge-borne virus, has caused devastating outbreaks, such as in Spain, Portugal and Morocco, in the late 1980s, killing hundreds of horses. While the current risk of the virus spreading in the UK is low, species of midges capable of transmitting it are already found in parts of Europe. Climate and environmental modelling suggest that conditions across the region are becoming increasingly suitable for the virus to establish and spread.
When pets and people share risks
Our close relationships with companion animals mean some parasites can leap from them to us.
Exotic parasites like Echinococcus multilocularis, Leishmania infantum and Dirofilaria immitis can infect humans, sometimes with serious consequences.
Take Echinococcus, for example. Dogs often carry it without symptoms, shedding eggs in their faeces that can contaminate soil, water, or food. Humans may become infected by accidentally ingesting these eggs, such as through contact with infected dogs or unwashed produce.
The two species of greatest concern for zoonotic transmission are Echinococcus granulosus, which causes Cystic echinococcosis, and E. multilocularis, which can cause a more serious, invasive form of the disease affecting the liver and other organs. In the UK, E. granulosus is present at low levels, with isolated cases reported in imported and farm-associated dogs.
E. multilocularishas not been detected in the UK and remains under active surveillance. In Ireland, there are no confirmed cases of Echinococcus in dogs, yet a 2019 case involving a woman with no travel history suggests the parasite may already be circulating undetected highlighting the importance of continued surveillance.
Parasites like Echinococcus granulosus have the potential to infect humans. medicalNN/Shutterstock
And what of exotic parasites that have already entered our domestic animal population? The first recorded UK case of a cyst-forming parasite in donkeys was documented in 2020, the first recorded Irish case was in 2023 and researchers are investigating suspected Onchocerca cervicalis in Connemara ponies. Initially mistaken for “sweet itch” – a common allergic skin condition in horses caused by midge bites – these cases presented with unusual symptoms but responded to deworming.
Protecting the UK
Protecting the UK from emerging vector-borne threats requires a proactive approach:
screen animals before importation to reduce the risk of bringing parasites into the country
formally monitor insect vectors – flies, ticks and mosquitoes – to track and predict spread
test local animal populations to establish a clear disease baseline
educate vets and owners about the risks of animal movement and encourage responsible practices, especially for dogs and horses.
Most importantly, we need a true One Health approach – a framework that recognises the health of people, animals and the environment are deeply interconnected. This approach brings together veterinary and human health professionals, environmental scientists and policymakers to share data, monitor threats and design coordinated prevention strategies. By acting early, we can limit the spread of parasites before they become established in the UK and Ireland.
If we wait until disease emerges, the horse will have truly bolted and we may discover the infection has already spread to our animals, our communities and, potentially, ourselves
Nikki Walshe is affiliated with ESCCAP (European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites)
Cop30, the UN climate summit scheduled to take place this November in the Brazilian city of Belém, is embroiled in a controversy that has nothing to do with solving the planet’s environmental problems. Currently occupying debate about the conference is what Brazil’s press is calling the “hosting crisis”.
André Corrêa do Lago, president of Cop30, said that countries have been pressurising Brazil to move the UN climate conference from Belém to another city because of the “exorbitant prices” being charged for hotels. Some governments have even considered not taking part in the conference or reducing their delegations. But the Brazilian government has dismissed this possibility.
How did this happen? A very low number of available beds, the raising of room rates to a premium by hotel chains, and historical prejudice have all led to the perfect storm of the current crisis.
At the end of the 17th century, Belém had three times as many inhabitants as São Paulo. The state capital of Pará was also one of the first cities in the country to have public energy, powered by gas. The city was also experiencing the first rubber extraction boom.
But with the subsequent decline of rubber, Belém and other cities in the Amazon lost their prominence. Today Belém is a city of the developing world which, like many others, including Baku in Azerbaijan which hosted the Cop29 summit last year, faces a host of infrastructure problems.
In addition to the obvious lack of urban infrastructure which generates and deepens social inequalities, there are other problems. The hotel network is too small to accommodate a demand for more than 50,000 beds, the amount of people expected for Cop30.
The problem has been cascading, but it all started with the city’s hotel chains. From the start of the year, hotels began to increase the prices of accommodation, and raise prices even higher for the period of the event.
The problems with lack of affordable hotel accommodation and the state of the city’s infrastructure are of great concern. But any public and media discussion of the issues tends to end up belittling the city and the entire Amazon region, revealing an internal colonialism that has always existed in Brazil.
Behind the criticism of infrastructure and hotel prices often lies an enduring and historic prejudice that assumes that an Amazonian city could never host an event of this size and importance.
Possible solutions
It could be argued that there has been a historical inertia, or even lack of oversight on the part of national and state governments for not having foreseen these issues and taking steps to pre-empt them.
In the short term, price regulation is necessary, which the state can’t impose because it lacks the legal authorisation to do so. The consumer secretariat even requested that hotels provide information on room rates. But this request was ignored, with chains claiming that this is a market issue, a view endorsed by the Brazilian Hotel Association.
The federal Brazilian government has responded by bringing two ocean liners to the city, which will provide around 6,000 beds. The government has also created an online accommodation platform which will make 2,500 rooms available.
There are other options available. The UN could, for example, offer a greater subsidy to delegations from developing countries, in order to guarantee a greater number of participants. Accommodating delegates in neighbouring cities is another alternative.
With time running out, there is a risk that the event won’t be attended as well as it is hoped. And the presence of the largest number of countries and delegates at Cop30 is fundamental to legitimise the decisions that will be taken.
The people of Pará are hospitable and enjoy receiving visitors, and the area is rich in culture, architecture and cuisine. This is not a time for greed, but for welcoming people and showing them the city, its way of life and what the Amazon needs. After all, the people who understand the Amazon best are the Amazonians.
Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?
Bruno Soeiro Vieira does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Since 2024, pushback against diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) has gathered momentum across North America. This year, that retreat has taken on a new form: the rebranding of “equity” with softer, less contentious terms like “belonging” or “community.”
The University of Alberta, for instance, no longer has a vice-provost of equity, diversity and inclusion. Instead, it now has an office for “access, community and belonging.”
Similarly, Alberta’s public pension fund eliminated its lead DEI role during a restructuring. A spokesperson maintained that “the departure of the individual responsible for the formal DEI program has not lessened AIMCo’s firm commitment to these principles.”
A similar shift is underway at the University of Lethbridge, which established an office of “accessibility, belonging and community” in December.
While language naturally evolves, this current shift appears to lack the deliberate engagement needed for genuine progress. Instead, it may be obscuring a step back from equity rather than a step forward.
Today’s so-called rebranding efforts are more about appeasement than progress. Rather, they are reactive moves that respond to external pressures rather than to the needs and demands of the communities most affected.
In the corporate world, the trend is stark. Mentions of “DEI” in S&P 500 corporate filings have dropped 70 per cent since 2022, replaced by softer terms like “belonging” and “inclusive culture.”
By softening language, organizations secure a socially acceptable way to exit from the difficult work of equity. It suggests these organizations have somehow moved beyond equity without ever having done the work.
Removing equity from organizational language has tangible consequences. First, it undermines accountability. Effective equity frameworks create measurable, trackable goals. Terms like “belonging” are harder to define and easier to abandon. They allow organizations to gesture toward inclusion without doing the hard work of systemic change.
Finally, there’s a risk to organizations themselves. DEI rollbacks hurt morale, retention, innovation and performance, and can even increase legal risk.
But meritocracy assumes a level playing field and obscures the fact that “merit” is socially constructed and context-dependent. It ignores that unequal barriers, like access to education and networks, impacts individual success despite a person’s achievements.
Research by MIT management professor Emilio J. Castilla has shown that organizations claiming to be meritocratic often end up reinforcing biases instead — this is also called the “paradox of meritocracy.”
For instance, in a study involving 445 participants with managerial experience, researchers asked participants to make bonus, promotion and termination decisions for fictional employees. When an organization’s culture emphasized meritocracy, male employees received higher bonuses than equally qualified female employees.
Conversely, when the work culture emphasized managerial discretion instead, the bias reversed in favour of women. This likely occurred because the prompt signalled a potential gender bias, triggering an over-correction. In a third scenario where neither meritocracy nor managerial discretion was emphasized, there was no significant difference in the bonuses assigned.
While the last scenario sounds promising, most work environments emphasize meritocracy, consciously or not. Merit- or performance-based pay remains the norm in many organziations, meaning the first scenario is most common.
Without transparency, merit-based rhetoric about who supposedly “deserves” advancement often reinforces existing inequalities. Nepotism, network-based advantages and selective visibility often fill the gap when equity frameworks are abandoned. Networks and visibility matter, but they should not be mistaken for merit.
While some institutions are backpedalling on DEI commitments, others in Canada and across Europe are holding firm by embedding equity in their strategy, leadership and performance frameworks.
Advancing equity in today’s climate requires both strategy and sustained action. Here’s where organizations can begin:
Establish and embed explicit, measurable equity objectives aligned with your business strategy.
Increase data transparency by collecting and publicly sharing disaggregated information on recruitment, promotion, pay equity, turnover and employee experience.
Give diverse voices real decision-making authority over policies and initiatives. Employee resource groups are a great way to start.
Hold leaders accountable by training them to champion equity and tying their incentives to concrete DEI outcomes.
Communicate DEI impacts transparently and authentically by sharing stories and metrics that showcase how equity efforts have improved business performance.
These solutions are already working. In my consulting practice, I have accompanied organizations that are making progress by building trust, energizing teams and driving innovation. In the end, they are measurably more successful and resilient.
The business case for equity is well-established: it drives performance, helps fuel growth and is an overall leadership imperative. In today’s political climate, it’s critical to stay focused on outcomes rather than rhetoric that frames equity as divisive or unnecessary.
The way forward
Rebranding “equity” as “belonging” doesn’t advance justice, especially when there’s no shared definition of what “belonging” actually means. It politely denies the need to dismantle real systemic barriers. For individuals facing those barriers, it sounds like an empty promise.
No one chooses their race, sex, socio-economic background, sexual orientation or to live with a disability or the lasting impacts of military service. But institutions can choose whether to confront the inequities tied to those experiences and dismantle barriers that individuals face.
This moment also calls for an honest reflection within the DEI space itself. Some initiatives have overreached or lost focus, contributing to this current backlash. Addressing missteps openly is part of rebuilding credibility in DEI work.
Equity, at its core, is about ensuring dignity and providing everyone with a fair chance to succeed. Walking away from equity work or watering it down until it becomes meaningless is not the answer. Moving forward requires less political polarization and more co-ordinated action so that everyone can have a fair chance to thrive.
Simon Blanchette does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
_Cicadetta montana_, _Cicada orni_, _Lyristes plebejus_, _Cicadetta brevipennis litoralis_, _Cicadetta cantilatrix_. Fritz Geller-Grimm, Stéphane Puissant, Thomas Hertach, CC BY
Profession : cicadologue. Stéphane Puissant est un biologiste qui étudie les cigales. Son objet d’étude l’amène à sillonner la planète, du Maghreb à l’Afrique de l’Ouest en passant par Madagascar. Échanger avec lui, c’est découvrir combien nous connaissons mal ces insectes. C’est aussi apprendre, par exemple, que certaines espèces peuvent vivre plus de vingt ans, que certains mâles restent silencieux, que l’essentiel de la vie d’une cigale se passe sous terre et bien d’autres choses encore.
The Conversation : Les cigales nous semblent familières, car nous sommes nombreux à les entendre l’été, mais d’un point de vue scientifique, sont-elles très étudiées ?
Stéphane Puissant : Les cigales peuvent sembler effectivement familières, car on en trouve partout sur la planète, à l’exception des pôles. Mais l’oreille humaine, qui perçoit les fréquences autour de 2 000 hertz n’est pas du tout capable d’entendre toutes les cigales. Ce seront surtout les grandes cigales que l’on pourra écouter, comme Cicada orni, Lyristes plebejus, deux espèces que tous ceux qui sont allés un jour dans le midi de la France, l’été, ont pu entendre.
À gauche, Lyristes plebejus ; à droite, Cicada orni. Stéphane Puissant, Fourni par l’auteur
Mais la majorité des cigales à travers le monde sont en réalité plus petites. Elles émettent donc des sons de fréquences plus hautes ou même dans les ultrasons pour les plus petites espèces. On va donc bien moins les entendre, voire pas du tout, surtout quand on a passé la quarantaine, comme c’est mon cas et que notre ouïe est moins performante. Il faut alors avoir des appareils détecteurs d’ultrasons pour les repérer et les identifier grâce à leur cymbalisation.
Je dis cymbalisation, car, contrairement à ce qui est souvent dit, les mâles cigales ne chantent pas, ils cymbalisent, en utilisant pour cela leurs organes appelés « cymbales », uniquement consacrés à la production de sons, qui peuvent être parfois très forts. Ainsi, certaines cigales australiennes font plus de bruit qu’un avion à réaction au décollage, soit parfois plus de 145 décibels !
Ces sons, chez toutes les espèces, ont pour fonction d’attirer les femelles. Ils peuvent également être produits chez certaines espèces pendant l’accouplement. Mais qu’on entende ces bruits à l’oreille ou à l’aide d’appareils, ils ne sont émis que durant une courte période de la vie de l’animal. Durant l’immense majorité de leur existence, les cigales sont invisibles et inaudibles pour celui qui veut l’observer.
Où sont-elles, alors ?
S. P. : Sous terre ! C’est là qu’elles passent l’essentiel de leur vie. Cela étonne souvent les gens, qui les associent au soleil. Mais les jeunes cigales restent sous terre où elles se nourrissent de la sève des racines des plantes. Elles y passent un an, deux ans pour les espèces de petites tailles. Pour les grandes espèces emblématiques du sud de la France, comme Cicada orni, ce sera quatre ans, cinq ans en moyenne, mais cela peut fluctuer entre deux ans et dix ans.
Il y a aussi les cas célèbres des cigales périodiques du genre Magicicada, qu’on trouve en Amérique du Nord et qui passent typiquement treize ans ou dix-sept ans sous terre, mais parfois aussi plus de vingt ans pour certaines populations.
Toujours aux États-Unis, mais plutôt dans la moitié sud du pays cette fois, Okanagana synodica est aussi une cigale également capable de passer une vingtaine d’années sous terre.
Après ces années passées sous terre, que ce soit deux ans ou vingt de plus, elles sortent pour se reproduire. C’est là qu’on peut donc les voir et les entendre, mais pour une très courte période de temps au regard de leurs années souterraines, car la durée de vie d’un spécimen n’est alors plus que d’une semaine ou deux, à la suite de quoi, les cigales, mâles et femelles, meurent. La femelle, juste avant, aura pondu des œufs sur les végétaux environnants. Ces œufs une fois éclos, les jeunes cigales se laisseront tomber à terre où elles s’enfonceront dans le sol, et où un nouveau cycle recommencera.
Tout cela pour dire que, si la cigale naît et meurt dans les arbres, elle passera l’essentiel de sa vie sous terre, ce qui fait qu’elle reste très difficile à observer, surtout pour certaines espèces qui ne sont visibles que deux semaines à trois semaines dans l’année. Il faut donc bien les connaître et être réactif pour les étudier.
Quand on est cicadologue, est-il fréquent de découvrir aussi de nouvelles espèces ?
S. P. : Je pense qu’il doit y avoir peut-être trois à cinq fois plus de cigales dans le monde que celles qu’on connaît actuellement, même si cela reste difficile à évaluer. Lorsque nous prospectons, en tant que spécialistes, il n’est pas si rare que cela de trouver de nouvelles espèces pour la science, surtout lorsque nous menons des recherches de terrain dans des zones qui n’ont encore jamais été prospectées par un spécialiste du groupe. Ça peut paraître excitant, mais parfois cela devient éprouvant. On déblaie sans cesse dans le champ de l’inconnu. On pense avoir gravi une montagne et puis, quand on est au sommet, on découvre une nouvelle chaîne de monts derrière, puis encore une autre… Cela montre finalement à quel point la vie sur terre reste méconnue, il reste tant à découvrir !
Je reviens ainsi cet été d’une mission dans le nord-ouest de l’Espagne avec un collègue suisse et un autre collègue français, spécialistes du genre Cicadetta, qui sont des petites cigales. Nous sommes partis une quinzaine de jours et tous les deux ou trois jours, de nouvelles découvertes apportaient leur lot de surprises. Les espèces de Cicadetta sont généralement des cigales de moins de deux centimètres, qui émettent des fréquences parfois à la limite des ultrasons, qui sont très farouches et dont les espèces sont souvent endémiques à la région où on les trouve.
Du coup, comment fait-on pour les trouver et les étudier ?
S. P. : Lors de cette mission en Espagne, j’ai notamment utilisé une technique qui m’a été apprise par des collègues néo-zélandais et australiens pour entrer en communication avec l’animal et l’amener à se rapprocher. Car ces cigales peuvent parfois se trouver à plus de 10 mètres ou 15 mètres au sommet des arbres.
Imaginez donc, une cigale à peine plus grosse qu’une mouche, farouche, très mobile et qui émet une cymbalisation à la limite des ultrasons au sommet des arbres ! L’observer et l’enregistrer s’avère presque mission impossible, il faut a minima des outils et certaines techniques pour cela. Une de ces techniques, donc, c’est le snapping ou « claquement de doigts », en français.
Cela permet d’imiter le battement d’ailes que font théoriquement les femelles dans ce groupe de cigales. Par ce procédé, elles indiquent aux mâles là où elles se situent. Quand on trouve le rythme que feraient ces femelles en réponse aux émissions sonores des mâles, généralement en claquant des doigts au moment qui semble être accentué dans la cymbalisation du mâle, on va pouvoir amener ces derniers à se rapprocher de nous. Pour cela, bien sûr, il faut entendre les mâles et ceci n’est possible que si l’on est équipé de détecteurs d’ultrasons avec amplificateur.
C’est comme cela qu’on peut réussir à capturer des spécimens qui deviendront des « types » si l’espèce s’avère être nouvelle pour la science. Ces « types » sont des spécimens de référence qui seront déposés dans une collection scientifique d’un Muséum national d’histoire naturelle. Cette démarche scientifique rigoureuse est dictée par le code international de nomenclature zoologique lorsqu’il s’agit de décrire et nommer une nouvelle espèce.
Je sais aussi que vous avez pu décrire une espèce de cigale assez unique, la cigale marteau. Qu’est-ce qui la singularise ?
Tête de la cigale-marteau (Cicadmalleus micheli). Stéphane Puissant, Fourni par l’auteur
C’est une cigale relativement petite, moins de deux centimètres, qui est extrêmement mystérieuse, car rarissime et unique par l’aspect de sa tête dans toute la famille des Cicadidae du globe. Ses caractéristiques morphologiques sont tellement singulières que cette espèce constitue à elle seule une tribu nouvelle pour la science que nous avons été amenés à décrire à l’époque avec Michel Boulard, éminent spécialiste mondial des cigales. Son environnement, dans le sud de la Thaïlande, a été très détruit. On a seulement pu observer quelques individus dans les amples dépendances, non entretenues de longue date, d’un vieux temple bouddhiste. Malgré sa morphologie tout à fait unique, elle est aussi passée inaperçue pendant des siècles, on a du mal à savoir pourquoi.
En France hexagonale, découvre-t-on encore de nouvelles cigales ?
S. P. : Actuellement, il y a 22 cigales différentes connues : 21 espèces recensées, dont deux espèces représentées par des sous-espèces géographiquement délimitées : Tibicina corsica corsica, en Corse, Tibicina corsica fairmairei dans le nord des Pyrénées-Orientales jusque dans le sud de l’Hérault.
Cicadetta brevipennis litoralis. Stéphane Puissant, Fourni par l’auteur
Il y a également Cicadetta brevipennis litoralis que j’ai décrite avec un collègue suisse, Thomas Hertach, dans les Pyrénées-Orientales et qui est une cigale d’arrière-dune. Elle se rencontre dans des milieux parfois partiellement inondés, une certaine partie de l’année, qu’on appelle les sansouïres.
Cette sous-espèce du littoral, endémique des Pyrénées-Orientales, est d’ailleurs très menacée, car dépendante d’environnements locaux qui le sont également, par la pression touristique sur le littoral et par tous les bouleversements majeurs de son milieu fragile de reproduction. Hormis ces sous-espèces récemment décrites, le nombre total d’espèces de cigales en France n’a plus tellement évolué ces dernières années, mais il est possible qu’il y ait encore des espèces inconnues à trouver, notamment dans des zones où les entomologistes spécialistes sont encore peu allés, dans certains massifs montagneux par exemple.
Lorsqu’on pense cigale, on pense immédiatement au sud de la France, mais peut-on en trouver également dans la moitié nord de l’Hexagone ?
S. P. : Bien sûr ! Il y a par exemple Cicadetta montana qu’on rencontre en Bretagne et même plus au Nord en Europe, mais il faut avoir l’ouïe fine pour détecter sa présence. En 2007, avec mon confrère Jérôme Sueur, nous avons également pu décrire une nouvelle espèce pour la Science présente en région parisienne, elle aussi difficile à entendre. Nous l’avons d’ailleurs appelée la « cigale fredonnante », car elle émet un son à peine audible, très haché et très court.
Cicadetta montana et Cicadetta cantilatrix. T. Hertach et F. Geller-Grimm, CC BY
Enregistrement des cymbalisations du mâle Cicadetta montana M. G., CC BY923 ko(download)
Enregistrement des cymbalisations du mâle Cicadetta cantilatrix T. Trilar, CC BY451 ko(download)
Récemment, plusieurs médias locaux français se sont étonnés que l’on entende des cigales dans des régions où l’on ne les aurait pas entendues avant, à Lyon par exemple ou bien en région parisienne, et beaucoup sont tentés d’expliquer cela du fait du changement climatique. Est-ce la réalité ?
S. P. : Pas vraiment, car les cigales ne bougent presque jamais de l’endroit où elles sont nées. Mes collègues scientifiques portugais et espagnols ont étudié les capacités de déplacement des individus de diverses populations de cigales. Ils ont constaté que les capacités de déplacements des individus d’une population étaient très faibles et d’autant plus réduites que les milieux étaient perturbés. Dans d’autres groupes d’insectes, il y a bien sûr des spécimens qui migrent, et qui, par le déplacement, peuvent nous indiquer qu’ils sont capables de coloniser de nouvelles zones parce que les conditions y sont plus propices, mais ce n’est pas le cas des cigales. Parfois, certains spécimens peuvent profiter des ascendances thermiques en montagne pour gagner des altitudes plus élevées via les courants d’air chaud. Seul l’avenir dira si une population pérenne pourra alors se maintenir.
Alors comment expliquer ces observations dans le nord de la France ?
S. P. : Déjà, il faut se rappeler que les espèces de cigales les plus faciles à entendre passent plusieurs années sous terre avant de sortir, d’être visibles et audibles pour l’humain, et qu’elles vont très vite mourir une fois la reproduction achevée. Parfois, les gens peuvent donc avoir oublié qu’ils avaient entendu, y a quatre ou cinq ans, des cigales autochtones comme Tibicina haematodes, la cigale rouge. Car, il y a des années où il est possible d’entendre plus de cigales, ceci est intrinsèque au cycle de vie des populations de l’espèce. Certaines années, très peu de spécimens sortiront du sol en un milieu donné alors que, deux ou trois ans plus tard, ils seront nombreux. C’est une dynamique naturelle à l’espèce qui est très nettement influencée par la ressource alimentaire disponible, soit la sève des plantes, et les conditions hygrothermiques de la période de l’année où les jeunes cigales émergent du sol.
Enregistrement des cymbalisations du mâle Tibicina haematodes M.G., CC BY333 ko(download)
Il y a aussi un phénomène plus inquiétant. Certaines personnes dans des régions nord aiment avoir un olivier ou une plante du sud de la France ou d’Espagne en pot chez elles. Dans ces pots, il peut y avoir de jeunes cigales encore sous terre qui, un été, vont se décider à sortir. Cela arrive ainsi avec Cicada orni dans la moitié nord de la France mais aussi avec la présence avérée et sporadique de Cicada barbara en France. C’est une cigale dont l’aire de répartition d’origine s’étend du nord Maghreb jusque dans la moitié sud du domaine ibérique. Sa présence en France n’est donc pas naturelle. Lorsqu’on recherche les causes de sa présence, on peut souvent noter, non loin de l’endroit où se fait entendre l’espèce, la présence d’une serre, d’une pépinière ou encore d’une plantation récente.
En général, ces espèces ne vont pas réussir à s’adapter. C’est ce que j’ai pu observer par exemple avec Cicada orni. Il y a quelques années, j’ai entendu plusieurs mâles cymbalisant dans les grands platanes de mon lieu de travail, au Jardin de l’Arquebuse du Muséum national d’histoire naturelle de Dijon. Je me suis demandé si l’espèce allait pouvoir se maintenir, mais trois ans après, elle avait disparu. Sous le climat de la Bourgogne, elles n’ont soit pas pu se reproduire, soit leurs œufs n’ont pas réussi à éclore.
D’autres médias, cette fois-ci du sud de la France, ont pu s’inquiéter parfois de cigales qu’on n’entendait plus certains jours, ou du moins certains étés. À quoi est-ce dû ?
S. P. : Les cigales vont sortir de terre et se mettre à cymbaliser lorsqu’il fait une certaine température, entre 19 et 22 °C pour les petites espèces, plus autour de 24 °C ou 25 °C chez les grandes. Mais une fois au grand air, elles ne vont pas pour autant cymbaliser sans discontinuer. S’il pleut, s’il vente trop, elles vont s’arrêter. Les très fortes chaleurs inhibent également leur activité, tout du moins durant une partie de la journée, lors des pics de températures.
Au sein des populations, il y a aussi des mâles qui ne cymbalisent pas systématiquement, comme c’est le cas par exemple chez Tibicina haematodes. On les appelle les mâles satellites. Ils vont en gros se positionner à côté d’un autre mâle qui, en cymbalisant, va lui attirer les femelles. Positionné non loin, le mâle satellite va alors à la rencontre de la femelle qui s’approche, en restant silencieux. Le mâle qui a fait des efforts n’en récoltera donc pas les fruits.
Pour l’oreille humaine, cela semble très difficile de localiser une cigale précisément, on entend plutôt le brouhaha environnant que font divers mâles qui cymbalisent. La femelle cigale a-t-elle l’ouïe plus fine pour pouvoir localiser précisément un individu mâle en particulier ?
S. P. : Le mâle et la femelle ont bien sûr un système d’audition optimal pour la perception du message codant propre à leur espèce. Cela peut compenser, chez certaines espèces, une vue pas toujours précise. J’ai ainsi parfois vu des cigales mâles tenter de s’accoupler avec mon pouce quand je l’approchais d’eux.
Pour localiser le mâle avec son ouïe, donc, la femelle va d’abord géolocaliser l’endroit où il y a un ou plusieurs mâles avec les basses fréquences de leur cymbalisation. Ce sont ces basses fréquences qui portent le plus loin, notamment à travers le feuillage des arbres.
Elle va ensuite pouvoir beaucoup plus précisément localiser un individu avec les hautes fréquences que, nous, nous n’entendons guère. Certaines espèces vont donc alterner ces deux types de fréquences ou les émettre simultanément. Parfois, chez certaines espèces, lorsque la femelle a localisé un ou plusieurs mâles, elle va se mettre à claquer des ailes, ce qui va inciter le mâle qui l’entend à changer son répertoire d’émissions sonores. Il pourra dans ce cas émettre une cymbalisation de cour, incitant la femelle à le rejoindre pour s’accoupler.
Le brouhaha qu’on entend serait donc en réalité un chœur très organisé ?
S. P. : Oui, tout à fait ! Mais l’organisation complexe des cymbalisations est souvent difficile à entendre à l’oreille humaine. Certaines cigales, par exemple, semblent émettre leur cymbalisation en continu, comme Tibicina haematodes déjà évoquée précédemment. Cela nous paraissait étonnant, car il est important aussi pour les mâles de prêter attention aux autres mâles, aux femelles qui pourraient claquer des ailes, aux potentiels prédateurs… Or, si un mâle cymbalise sans s’arrêter, comment peut-il entendre ? Mais en se penchant vraiment sur leur cymbalisation, on peut détecter des microcoupures, parfois de moins d’une seconde. À l’oreille, il faut s’entraîner pour les percevoir, mais à l’enregistrement, c’est très net lorsqu’une cymbalisation est analysée à l’aide d’un logiciel acoustique. On pense donc que c’est pendant ces microcoupures que les mâles se jaugent mutuellement ou, par exemple, la distance à laquelle ils se trouvent les uns des autres.
Il y a aussi parfois, dans un même environnement, plusieurs espèces de cigales différentes. Mon confrère Jérôme Sueur a montré, pendant sa thèse dans le cadre de ses recherches menées au Mexique, que les espèces pouvaient répartir leur activité durant des heures différentes de la journée, ou bien ne pas émettre aux mêmes fréquences pour que les femelles conspécifiques puissent les localiser.
On a aussi pu parfois noter au sein d’une même espèce que les individus mâles situés en périphérie de l’aire de répartition cymbalisent de façon différente de ceux présents au cœur de l’aire. Avec la distance et le temps, les émissions des mâles peuvent devenir suffisamment différentes au point qu’une femelle née à quelques centaines de kilomètres de là, et mise en leur compagnie peut ne pas systématiquement s’accoupler avec ces mâles. La communication sonore chez les cigales est en effet un des mécanismes puissants de la spéciation.
Et puis enfin, il y a, pour le genre Cicadetta par exemple, des comportements qui sont tout à fait différents : les mâles de certaines espèces vont voler en groupe pour chercher les femelles. Mais, comme beaucoup d’autres choses cela reste à être précisément étudié, car c’est encore très mal connu.
Propos recueillis par Gabrielle Maréchaux.
Stéphane Puissant ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.
Holidays should be about relaxing, enjoying yourself and making memories – not obsessing over a “perfect” eating plan. A healthy diet is built over months and years, not in a single week (or two). Instead of restricting what you eat, a better approach is to add healthy extras to your holiday meals. This way, you can nourish your body, support your digestive system and stay hydrated without feeling deprived.
If you usually count every calorie, giving yourself a mental break can be refreshing and well deserved. Recent research even suggests that strict calorie restriction can have a detrimental effect on mental health. Of course, this advice assumes holidays are occasional. If you travel frequently, your approach might need to be different. And if you have health conditions or specific dietary needs, tailored guidance is always best.
A few extra holiday calories won’t undo your long-term health – but side effects from overeating like bloating, constipation and fatigue can put a damper on your trip. These tips focus on helping you avoid those issues so you can feel your best and make the most of your time away.
Add, don’t restrict
It’s often easier to add something to your diet than to cut things out, especially on holiday. Rather than having a list of foods to avoid, eat what you fancy and then add nourishing extras.
Where you’re staying will influence how easy this is. At an all-inclusive resort, the variety makes it simple to include more fruit and vegetables. Adding a side salad or extra vegetables to every plate, or piling on chopped fruit at breakfast, keeps your fibre intake up and provides valuable nutrients. If you want to moderate calorie intake, starting meals with salad or fruit can help fill you up before the main course.
If your hotel offers breakfast, use it as a chance to start the day with nourishing foods. A plate with mushrooms, tomatoes, beans, or fresh fruit can set you up well, making it easier to relax about food choices for the rest of the day.
Self-catering or dining out can be trickier, but not impossible. Ordering vegetable sides, buying fresh fruit for your room, and keeping a bag of nuts or seeds handy can all help.
Wherever you are, enjoy the local cuisine. In the Mediterranean, for example, traditional diets are rich in vegetables, olive oiland fresh fish – all linked to heart health and longevity.
If you’re near the coast, make the most of fresh fish, an excellent source of healthy fats. Choosing whole, minimally processed foods as often as possible is generally the healthiest option.
Staying hydrated
Hot climates and busy days make hydration especially important. Keep a water bottle with you, sip regularly, and watch for early signs of dehydration, such as thirst, dark urine, or dizziness. Water and sugar-free drinks are the healthiest choices.
If alcohol is part of your holiday, balance it with non-alcoholic fluids. From a health perspective, alcohol isn’t good for the body – but it’s understandable to want a glass of wine at dinner or a cold beer by the pool. Enjoy it in ways that minimise the after-effects: alternate with water, dilute with soda or lemonade to make spritzers or shandies, or plan a few drink-free days.
Cocktails and even mocktails can be surprisingly high in sugar, so save them for when you’ll really enjoy them. Having alcohol with food can soften its effects, but remember it’s dehydrating – so top up with plenty of water.
Eating and drinking on flights
Long flights can be dehydrating and tiring, so what you eat and drink on board can make a big difference to how you feel when you land. Cabin air is extremely dry, so drink water regularly – ideally a glass every hour – and limit alcohol and caffeine, which can worsen dehydration.
If possible, bring your own snacks. Fresh fruit like grapes or apple slices, vegetable sticks, unsalted nuts, and oat-based bars are healthier and often more satisfying than high-salt, high-sugar snacks sold on board. Salty foods can make you more thirsty, and heavy meals may leave you bloated or sluggish in the confined space of an aircraft seat.
Airline meals can vary in quality, but you can often request a lighter or special option (such as vegetarian or low-salt) when booking. Eating smaller portions and stretching your legs when possible can help keep digestion moving and reduce the risk of deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
Travelling with children
With children, mealtimes can be more challenging, especially when routines are disrupted. Young travellers are more prone to dehydration, stomach upsets and constipation – particularly if their diet changes suddenly. A loose structure of three balanced meals, healthy snacks and regular water breaks can help maintain appetite and keep digestion on track.
Holidays can also be a great opportunity for children to try new foods. Buffets work well for this, allowing them to explore small, low-pressure portions. In restaurants, sharing a few dishes between the table can encourage tasting without the commitment of a full plate. Offering new flavours alongside familiar favourites – and keeping it low-pressure – may make them more likely to try new foods.
Children can be especially vulnerable to dehydration, as they may not recognise or communicate the symptoms. Make sure they regularly have access to drinks. Some parents mark water levels on a child’s cup to track intake.
Foods with high water content – such as watermelon, cucumber and other fruit and vegetables – also contribute to hydration. Treats such as ice lollies count too, though watch the sugar. Slush drinks are often popular, but many are high in sugar and some contain glycerol, which the Food Standards Agency advises against for children under seven.
Holiday eating isn’t about perfection. Healthy eating is built over months and years, not a week or two. Keeping up your fruit and vegetable intake supports digestion, and regular fluids keep you hydrated. Simple steps to nourish your body mean more energy for exploring, relaxing with family, or simply enjoying a well-earned break.
Rachel Woods does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Imagine you had an unlimited budget for individual tutors offering hyper-personalised courses that maximised learners’ productivity and skills development. This summer I previewed this idea – with a ridiculous and solipsistic test.
I asked an AI tutor agent to play the role of me, an Oxford lecturer on media and AI, and teach me a personal master’s course, based entirely on my own work.
I set up the agent via an off-the-shelf ChatGPT tool hosted on the Azure-based Nebula One platform, with a prompt to research and impersonate me, then build personalised material based on what I already think. I didn’t tell the large language model (LLM) what to read or do anything else to enhance its capabilities, such as giving it access to learning materials that aren’t publicly available online.
The agent’s course in media and AI was well structured – a term-long, original six-module journey into my own collected works that I had never devised, but admit I would have liked to.
It was interactive and rapid-fire, demanding mental acuity via regular switches in formats. It was intellectually challenging, like good Oxford tutorials should be. The agent taught with rigour, giving instant responses to anything I asked. It had a powerful understanding of the fast-evolving landscape of AI and media through the same lens as me, but had done more homework.
This was apparently fed by my entire multimedia output – books, speeches, articles, press interviews, even university lectures I had no idea had even been recorded, let alone used to train GPT-4 or GPT-5.
The course was a great learning experience, even though I supposedly knew it all already. So in the inevitable student survey, I gave the agentic version of me well-deserved, five-star feedback.
If NPCs are generated by AI, who decides their personalities, backgrounds or morals? Could this lead to bias or stereotyping?
And:
If an AI NPC can learn and adapt, does it blur the line between character and “entity” [independent actor]?
These are great, philosophical questions, which will probably come to the fore when and if Grand Theft Auto 6 comes out next May. I’m psyched that the agentic me came up with them, even if the real me didn’t.
Agentic me also built on what real me does know. In film, it knew about bog-standard Adobe After Effects, which I had covered (it’s used for creating motion graphics and visual effects). But it added Nuke, a professional tool used to combine and manipulate visual effects in Avengers, which (I’m embarrased to say) I had never heard of.
The course reading list
So where did the agent’s knowledge of me come from? My publisher Routledge did a training data deal with Open AI, which I guess could cover my books on media, AI and live experience.
Unlike some authors, I’m up for that. My books guide people through an amazing and fast-moving subject, and I want them in the global conversation, in every format and territory possible (Turkish already out, Korean this month).
That availability has to extend to what is now potentially the most discoverable “language” of all, the one spoken by AI models. The priority for any writer who agrees with this should be AI optimisation: making their work easy for LLMs to find, process and use – much like search engine optimisation, but for AI.
To build on this, I further tested my idea by getting an agent powered by China’s Deep Seek to run a course on my materials. When I found myself less visible in its training corpus, it was hard not to take offence. There is no greater diss in the age of AI than a leading LLM deeming your book about AI irrelevant.
Optimising your output to be seen by the AIs is the new SEO. Vasilyev Alexandr
When I experimented with other AIs, they had issues getting their facts straight, which is very 2024. From Google’s Gemini 2.5 Pro I learned hallucinatory biographical details about myself like a role running media company The Runaway Collective.
When I asked Elon Musk’s Grok what my best quote was, it said: “Whatever your question, the answer is AI.” That’s a great line, but Google DeepMind’s Nobel-winning Demis Hassabis said it, not me.
Where we’re heading
This whole, self-absorbed summer diversion was clearly absurd, though not entirely. Agentic self-learning projects are quite possibly what university teaching actually needs: interactive, analytical, insightful and personalised. And there is some emerging research around the value. This German-led study found that AI-generated tuition helped to motivate secondary school students and benefited their exam revision.
It won’t be long before we start to see this kind of real-time AI layer formally incorporated into school and university teaching. Anyone lecturing undergraduates will know that AI is already there. Students use AI transcription to take notes. Lecture content is ripped in seconds from these transcriptions, and will have trained a dozen LLMs within the year. To assist with writing essays, ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini and Deep Seek/Qwen are the sine qua non of Gen Z projects.
But here’s the kicker. As AI becomes ever more central to education, the human teacher becomes more important, not less. They will guide the learning experience, bringing published works to the conceptual framework of a course, and driving in-person student engagement and encouragement. They can extend their value as personal AI tutors – via agents – for each student, based on individual learning needs.
Where do younger teachers fit in, who don’t have a back catalogue to train LLMs? Well, the younger the teacher, the more AI-native they are likely to be. They can use AI to flesh out their own conceptual vision for a course by widening the research beyond their own work, by prompting the agent on what should be included.
So too in teaching. AI threatens the learning space, yet can liberate powerful interaction. A prevailing wisdom is that it will make students dumber. But perhaps AI could actually be unlocking for students the next level of personalisation, challenge and motivation.
Alex Connock does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
