Category: Academic Reportage

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Qu’est-ce que l’intelligence culturelle ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Marie Chédru, Enseignante-Chercheuse, Sciences Humaines et Sociales, UniLaSalle

L’intelligence culturelle compte un ensemble de compétences qui peuvent s’apprendre et se développer. Andy Barbour/Pexels, CC BY

Que ce soit à l’école, au travail ou dans nos loisirs, nous côtoyons des individus aux origines culturelles diversifiées. L’« intelligence culturelle », qui permet de comprendre et de s’adapter à des codes culturels différents, est un atout essentiel pour favoriser le vivre-ensemble.

Que signifie être intelligent ? Réussir un test de logique ? Résoudre une équation ? Avoir une bonne mémoire ? L’intelligence a longtemps été réduite à un score de QI. Pourtant, dès les années 1920–1940, des psychologues américains comme Edward Thorndike, Louis Thurstone ou Raymond Cattell soulignaient déjà l’existence de différentes formes d’intelligence.

Dans les années 1980, c’est un autre psychologue américain Robert Sternberg qui propose une approche qui distingue trois dimensions complémentaires : l’intelligence analytique (raisonner, comparer, résoudre des problèmes), l’intelligence créative (imaginer, faire face à la nouveauté) et l’intelligence pratique (s’adapter à son environnement, agir efficacement). Selon son approche, être intelligent, c’est avant tout savoir atteindre ses objectifs de vie, dans un contexte donné, en mobilisant ses forces et en compensant ses faiblesses.

Interagir dans des environnements multiculturels

C’est dans la continuité des travaux de Sternberg qu’a émergé la notion d’intelligence culturelle, ou cultural intelligence (CQ). Proposée par Earley et Ang en 2003, elle désigne la capacité à comprendre les différences culturelles, à s’y adapter et à interagir efficacement dans des environnements multiculturels. L’objectif initial était d’expliquer pourquoi certains expatriés réussissent mieux que d’autres lors de missions internationales. Les chercheurs ont ainsi identifié quatre dimensions complémentaires de l’intelligence culturelle.

La dimension métacognitive correspond à la capacité de prendre conscience de ses propres biais culturels et d’ajuster sa manière de penser et d’interagir en fonction du contexte. Par exemple, un manager français peut être habitué à exprimer ses critiques de manière très directe. Face à des interlocuteurs issus d’un contexte culturel où celles-ci sont formulées de façon plus implicite, il comprend que ce style peut être perçu comme trop abrupt. Il revoit alors son approche pour faciliter la coopération.

La dimension cognitive renvoie aux connaissances générales sur d’autres cultures, leurs normes et leurs pratiques : savoir, par exemple, qu’au Japon échanger une carte de visite suit un rituel précis, qu’en Allemagne tout retard est perçu comme un véritable manque de respect ou qu’aux États-Unis le small talk au cours d’une réunion est une étape incontournable avant d’entrer dans le vif du sujet.

La dimension motivationnelle reflète l’envie et la confiance nécessaires pour interagir avec des personnes culturellement différentes. On la retrouve, par exemple, chez des étudiants qui choisissent volontairement de rejoindre une équipe internationale même si cela demandera plus d’efforts de communication.

Enfin, la dimension comportementale désigne la faculté d’adapter concrètement ses comportements verbaux et non verbaux lors d’une interaction interculturelle. Cela peut impliquer de ralentir son débit de parole, de moduler le ton de sa voix ou encore d’ajuster la distance avec son interlocuteur, en fonction du contexte culturel.

Une compétence essentielle

De nombreuses recherches confirment les effets positifs de l’intelligence culturelle. À titre d’exemples, elle aide les expatriés à mieux s’adapter et à réduire leur anxiété, elle améliore le leadership et la performance des équipes multiculturelles, ou encore elle stimule la coopération et l’innovation en facilitant le partage de connaissances.

D’abord pensée pour accompagner les cadres en mission à l’étranger, l’intelligence culturelle est aujourd’hui reconnue comme une compétence essentielle dans de nombreux contextes : au travail, à l’école, mais aussi dans la vie quotidienne, partout où des personnes issues de cultures différentes se côtoient.

Les recherches montrent aussi que cette compétence peut s’apprendre et se développer. La formation interculturelle, qu’il s’agisse de cours, de jeux de rôle ou de simulations, permet de mieux décoder les différences culturelles. Cela dit, ce sont surtout les expériences immersives qui s’avèrent les plus efficaces : les projets en équipes multiculturelles ou les séjours à l’international renforcent de manière durable l’intelligence culturelle.

Ce que révèle une étude auprès d’élèves ingénieurs

L’intelligence culturelle concerne la grande majorité des étudiants, appelés à apprendre et à travailler dans des environnements multiculturels. C’est dans cette perspective que nous avons mené une étude auprès d’élèves ingénieurs en mobilité internationale pour comprendre comment cette expérience pouvait renforcer leur intelligence culturelle.

Concrètement, nous avons évalué leur intelligence culturelle à l’aide d’un questionnaire scientifiquement reconnu administré deux fois : avant leur départ et à leur retour de mobilité. Cette méthodologie longitudinale permet de comparer les niveaux initiaux et finaux et de mesurer l’évolution des différentes dimensions de l’intelligence culturelle.

Les résultats sont clairs : la mobilité internationale fait progresser significativement l’intelligence culturelle, surtout chez ceux qui avaient peu voyagé auparavant ou qui n’étaient pas spontanément ouverts aux autres cultures. Autrement dit, plus on est « novice », plus on progresse. C’est ce que nous appelons « l’effet première fois » : lors d’un premier contact prolongé avec une autre culture, chacun est amené à réviser ses repères.

Ces résultats ont des implications directes pour la formation des élèves ingénieurs. Une mobilité à l’international n’est pas seulement un atout à valoriser sur un CV : c’est une occasion unique de développer des compétences transversales désormais indispensables dans le monde du travail. Les employeurs attendent en effet de leurs collaborateurs qu’ils soient non seulement techniquement compétents, mais aussi capables de s’adapter à des environnements multiculturels et de coopérer efficacement au-delà des frontières.

Nos résultats vont dans le même sens que d’autres recherches qui montrent que l’intelligence culturelle dépasse largement le cadre des séjours à l’étranger. Elle favorise la coexistence pacifique en réduisant les préjugés, elle aide à mieux coopérer dans le travail ou dans les études, enfin, elle prépare chacun à évoluer dans des environnements internationaux. Les écoles et les universités jouent un rôle clé : en développant ces compétences, elles contribuent à former des professionnels plus adaptables, mais aussi à bâtir une société plus inclusive.

Cet article est publié dans le cadre de la Fête de la science (qui a lieu du 3 au 13 octobre 2025), dont The Conversation France est partenaire. Cette nouvelle édition porte sur la thématique « Intelligence(s) ». Retrouvez tous les événements de votre région sur le site Fetedelascience.fr.

The Conversation

Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.

– ref. Qu’est-ce que l’intelligence culturelle ? – https://theconversation.com/quest-ce-que-lintelligence-culturelle-265803

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Supreme Court to decide if Colorado’s law banning conversion therapy violates free speech

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Timothy R. Holbrook, Professor of Law, University of Denver

The US Supreme Court will hear oral arguments for yet another case involving the LGBTQ+ community. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images

The constitutionality of a Colorado law that bans so-called “conversion therapy” is scheduled to go before the Supreme Court on Oct. 7, 2025. The question at the center of the case, Chiles v. Salazar, is whether a therapist who uses talk therapy to try to convince minors to change their sexual orientation or gender identity is protected by a First Amendment right to free speech.

Twenty-three other states and the District of Columbia also ban conversion therapy.

People stand behind a table cheering as a white man in a blue suit jacket signs bills into law.
Colorado Gov. Jared Polis is applauded as he signs a law banning the use of conversion therapy on minors.
Aaron Ontiveroz/The Denver Post via Getty Images

I am a legal scholar who has explored aspects of the rights of the LGBTQ+ community, and this case is an important test of the status of the community’s rights and protections at the Supreme Court.

Why it matters

The case has similarities to the court’s 2025 decision in United States v. Skrmetti that upheld state laws banning gender-affirming care for transgender minors, such as the use of puberty-blocking hormones. LGBTQ+ persons viewed those bans as hurting the community, whereas bans like Colorado’s on conversion therapy are viewed as protecting the community.

Technically, the legal issue in Skrmetti was different: The court addressed whether the ban violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment, which prohibits states from discriminating against particular protected classes, such as race or gender, absent a particularly strong state interest. In the Skrmetti decision, the court held there was no discrimination on the basis of sex, which meant the law received no heightened scrutiny.

Instead, the court assessed whether there was a “rational basis” for the law and held that Tennessee had “plausible reasons” for the ban: protecting minors from harms such as sterility and treatments whose long-term effects are unclear. The court upheld the law banning gender-affirming care even though major U.S. medical professional associations oppose such bans and support such care.

The facts of Chiles

In Chiles, the issue is freedom of speech, not equal protection. But this time the Colordo ban on conversion therapy aligns with leading medical associations.

Kaley Chiles is a licensed professional counselor who uses talk therapy in her counseling practice. Chiles identifies as Christian and often works with Christian clients. Chiles “does not try to help minors change their attractions, behavior, or identity, when her minor clients tell her they are not seeking such change.” She would like to use talk therapy with clients “who have same-sex attractions or gender identity confusion and who also prioritize their faith above their feelings” and who “are seeking to live a life consistent with their faith,” according to court filings.

Chiles sued Colorado to invalidate the statute as unconstitutional for violating her freedom of speech and religion under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Both the federal district court in Colorado and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 10th Circuit denied her request for a preliminary injunction, rejecting both arguments.

The Supreme Court agreed only to hear her free speech claim, leaving the 10th Circuit’s rejection of her religious liberty claim in place.

Is ‘talk therapy’ speech or conduct?

The Supreme Court first will need to address whether talk therapy is protected speech under the First Amendment. This decision likely will determine the case’s outcome.

Chiles contends that talk therapy is protected speech and that Colorado is impermissibly regulating the content of her potential speech. The law permits her to help minor clients embrace their sexual orientation or gender identity through talk therapy but not to change it. If this therapy is speech, it would be regulating the content of her speech because the law determines what can and cannot be said. Affirming talk therapy is allowed, but conversion therapy is prohibited.

Colorado, however, insists that the statute regulates medical conduct, which is not protected by the First Amendment, even if there is an incidental burden on speech.

A state undisputably can regulate medical activity, such as the prescription of a medicine. If the therapy involved the use of medicines, there would be no dispute because no speech would be involved. The Colorado conversion therapy ban is part of a broader statute, the Mental Health Practice Act, which prohibits acts that could harm patients. Thus, talk therapy, according to Colorado, is treatment – like providing medicine – that the state is free to regulate.

Conversion therapy is also deemed ineffective and harmful to children by leading medical associations, such as the American Psychiatric Association and the American Medical Association. The 10th Circuit noted that the Colorado ban regulates treatment, not expression, because Chiles is free to share her views on conversion therapy, even with minors. She simply cannot engage in actual therapy under the law.

People with protest and support signs stand outside of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
Members of both sides of the debate stand in front of the U.S. Supreme Court on Dec. 5, 2022. The high court heard oral arguments in a case involving the owner of a website design company in Colorado who refused to create websites for same-sex weddings despite a state antidiscrimination law.
Kent Nishimura/Getty Images

The Supreme Court will need to decide whether talk therapy is speech or conduct. The court often takes a broad view of what constitutes speech, particularly in the area of LGBTQ+ rights. In 303 Creative LLC v. Elenis, another case out of Colorado, the court held that creating a wedding webpage was deemed protected speech. This 2023 decision permitted the webpage designer to deny services to same-sex couples requesting webpages for their weddings, in violation of Colorado’s law prohibiting sexual orientation discrimination.

If the court concludes that conversion therapy is conduct, then the Colorado law is subject to the same standard used in Skrmetti – rational basis – and likely will survive. In light of 303 Creative, however, the court may deem it speech.

If talk therapy is speech, can Colorado ban it?

Simply because an act constitutes speech protected by the First Amendment does not mean the state cannot regulate it. For example, the state can rightly regulate defamatory statements or obscene material.

Courts, however, apply an exacting standard of review, known as strict scrutiny, and rarely does a law survive such analysis. Colorado must show that its ban on conversion therapy is narrowly tailored to achieve a compelling state interest. Colorado contends that ensuring minors receive safe and effective mental health care is a compelling interest, and the law is narrowly tailored because “(i)t prohibits only specific harmful treatment while leaving therapists free to engage in any other appropriate therapy.”

Chiles’ strongest argument is that the law is not narrowly tailored for a number of reasons. Chiles contends the law is too broad because it bans more speech than necessary to protect against any harms to LGBTQ+ minors, including any therapy to change behavior, expression, identity or feeling.

For example, she argues she could not counsel a gay client toward celibacy. It is also not properly tailored, Chiles argues, because it exposes minors to the harms of conversion therapy by its omissions: It applies only to licensed mental health professionals and not others, such as life coaches, and it applies only to minors. If conversion therapy is as harmful as Colorado alleges, these gaps show the lack of proper tailoring, says Chiles.

The court has frequently struck down laws that regulate the content of speech. If the court concludes that talk therapy is protected speech, it is likely the court will find the Colorado ban on conversion therapy unconstitutional.

Such a decision would contrast sharply with Skrmetti. If the court strikes down the Colorado law, then a law meant to protect LGBTQ+ minors will be invalidated while one deemed harmful to trans minors will stand.

The court again will have gone against the predominant view of medical experts in a way detrimental to the LGBTQ+ community, potentially adding to criticism of the Supreme Court as being too political.

Read more of our stories about Colorado.

The Conversation

Timothy R. Holbrook does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Supreme Court to decide if Colorado’s law banning conversion therapy violates free speech – https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-to-decide-if-colorados-law-banning-conversion-therapy-violates-free-speech-265529

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Windhoek’s Old Location was a place of pain, but also joy – new book

Source: The Conversation – Africa – By Henning Melber, Extraordinary Professor, Department of Political Sciences, University of Pretoria

All that’s left of a famous settlement called the Old Location in Windhoek, Namibia, is a graveyard and a monument to remember the residents who were killed while protesting their forced removal in 1959.

But a new open source book documents how the spirit and culture that drove resistance are kept alive by those who lived there.

After the Old Location massacre the national liberation movement Swapo would be founded to fight for independence.

The Windhoek Old Location tells the residents’ stories with historical images by Dieter Hinrichs and words by Henning Melber. We asked Melber more about the site.

What is a township and can you give us a brief history of this one?

Townships were established in southern African settler colonial societies by white minority regimes. They created reserves for ethnic groups classified as “tribes” to separate whites from other local communities in cities and towns.

In Namibia, the Old Location was the main residential area for Africans in the capital, Windhoek. The settlement was established from 1903 during German colonial rule. After the first world war German colonies were handed over to allied powers and South Africa was entrusted with the administration of its neighbour, turning it into a province-like entity.

Following South Africa’s apartheid doctrine, Black Namibians were physically separated by ethnic classification. The Old Location was then just called a Location. Residents were from various local ethnic communities, living together peacefully and sharing a common identity in daily life.

But since the late 1950s the residents were relocated to a new, ethnically subdivided township that had been demarcated further from the capital’s “white” city centre where many worked as underpaid labourers. The so-called Coloureds and Rehoboth Basters would then be separated and moved to a new suburb, Khomasdal.

When the Location’s “Native Advisory Board” was asked for a name for the new destination, it suggested Katutura. Through ignorance of the meaning of this Otjiherero word (“A place where we do not stay”), the proposal was adopted.

Towards the end of 1959, boycotts and demonstrations in protest of the forced removal were organised, mostly by women. On 10 December some 13 people were killed and many more injured in a clash with the police. The day is remembered as Human Rights Day/Namibian Women’s Day.

Residents who refused to move were deported to reserves. All homes were demolished. This destruction followed South Africa’s policy to raze established communities to establish white suburbs. The Location was closed in August 1968.

A year earlier, in August 1967, the first clash between South African soldiers and armed fighters of the liberation movement Swapo took place in the north of the country. The trauma of the forced removals from the Old Location was a turning point for a liberation struggle that would last until independence in 1990.

What role does memory play in telling this story?

The Old Location’s history has so far been preserved mainly in archives and people’s memories. We wanted it to be available in the public sphere. The book documents resilience and the determination to resist apartheid. It also highlights the unique social interaction in the Old Location.

It includes many personal memories. Bience Gawanas, chancellor of the University of Warwick, was born in the Old Location in 1956. Her father was a motor mechanic who owned a shop and filling station. He opposed the forced removal. In her preface she stresses the need

to tell our stories to bring back the values of humanity and community in our lives…

Uazuvara Katjivena, who published his grandmother’s story of the German genocide in Namibia, emphasises in his postscript:

Documenting aspects of what happened then and the lives we had under apartheid … are an important reminder that we did not surrender.

The voices of former residents recall a community nurtured by a spirit of extended family and solidarity. Zedekia Ngavirue, the Location’s first social worker, was involved in the resistance. Years later he said:

It was, indeed, when we owned little that we were prepared to make the greatest sacrifices.

For many, the Old Location was a place of security and harmony. Daniel Humavindu remembers:

The Old Location created a great family in which residents looked out for each other.

According to former resident Petrina Rina Tira Biwa:

The segregation we experienced when we moved to Katutura was not there.

“On Saturdays,” stressed educator and activist Ottilie Abrahams, “you are at the football field. Everybody used to go there, like a religion.”

And former resident Anna Campbell remembers two of the Location’s most famous bands, Johannes Mareko’s and Laydon’s:

It was safe to attend the dances. We also had films.

Why are the photos so important?

The book’s photos offer an authentic face and they capture the atmosphere of the time. They were taken mainly in 1959 and 1960 by young German photographer Dieter Hinrichs. After training in Germany he took a temporary job in a Windhoek photo studio. In his spare time he took the photos that today offer a rare glimpse into Black social realities of the time.

They show ordinary daily life and cultural activities. Dancing competitions were a weekend entertainment. Church events created togetherness. Every year the Location’s Coon Carnival would invade the Windhoek inner city.

Alongside these photos are others of the loss and pain that characterised the move to Katutura. In contrast, family portraits staged in the atelier of the local photo shop reclaim individual pride and dignity.

Aerial views contrast the motley Old Location with the soulless drawing board design of Katutura. The photo gallery in the book reveals humanity, an essential antidote to the dehumanisation of apartheid.

What happened after the bulldozers?

Katutura became a kind of open-air prison, where access was controlled and people were under constant observation. But they did not capitulate. Their struggle took new forms.

Katutura became the operational base for organised underground activities of the resistance. The Swapo Youth League was constituted there.



Read more:
Namibia celebrates independence heroes, but glosses over a painful history

Those forced to live at “a place where we do not stay” entered new forms of social interaction. A thriving music scene blending local township tunes with pop culture kept alive the spirit of the Old Location. But much of its genuine social fabric faded.

What do you hope readers will take away?

That history matters. That the heroic narrative of a patriotic national historiography under a former liberation movement as government is not the whole story.

The often-nameless heroines and heroes deserve recognition. History hasn’t got just one truth to offer. Memories are mixed and even contested. Accounts of ordinary living conditions must be part of history.

So, the book attempts to restore a significant element of the struggle for liberation in formation. But also remembers the many forms of oppression under apartheid. It’s important to us that the book is in the public domain.

I hope the book can motivate a younger generation of Namibian scholars and activists to explore the country’s culture of resistance. Those still alive to remember get fewer.

The Conversation

Henning Melber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Windhoek’s Old Location was a place of pain, but also joy – new book – https://theconversation.com/windhoeks-old-location-was-a-place-of-pain-but-also-joy-new-book-266151

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Edson Sithole: new book uncovers the work of a thinker, lawyer and Zimbabwean freedom fighter who ‘disappeared’

Source: The Conversation – Africa (2) – By Brooks Marmon, Post-doctoral Scholar, Mershon Center for International Security Studies, The Ohio State University

Edson Sithole was born in what was then Southern Rhodesia in 1935. He was the first black person in southern Africa to obtain a Doctor of Laws degree. He was the second black person in the country (which became Zimbabwe in 1980) to qualify as a lawyer, and co-founded Rhodesia’s African Bar Association in 1973.

Sithole was an anti-colonial nationalist. He was “disappeared” alongside his secretary, Miriam Mhlanga, in downtown Salisbury (present-day Harare) 50 years ago. Brooks Marmon, a historian of Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle, has compiled and edited a forthcoming collection of Sithole’s writings, speeches and interviews.

Who was Edson Sithole? Why does he matter in Zimbabwe’s history?

He was one of the most prominent pan-African nationalists who had not gone into exile, a major legal and intellectual force behind multiple Zimbabwean liberation movements.

Despite his important intellectual and organisational contributions to Zimbabwe’s independence struggle, he is best remembered today for the sensational nature of his elimination from the political scene. He left the Rhodesian press club at a downtown hotel in Salisbury on 15 October 1975, and was never seen again.

The 50th anniversary of Sithole’s elimination is an apt time to recover his political voice. Sithole was a prolific writer but much of his work appeared in periodicals that were banned and silenced by settler authorities.

What’s new in this collection?

The contributions in the book highlight four themes: Sithole’s views on pan-Africanism; his experience as a political prisoner; his views on intra-nationalist factionalism; and his search for a settlement with white Rhodesians.

Sithole’s voice is supplemented by my own biographical account of his political life.

Given Zimbabwe’s struggles with political pluralism, the section on factionalism is especially illuminating. A recurring theme is Sithole’s rivalry with one of the leading protagonists of Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle, Joshua Nkomo. Coupled with Sithole’s overlooked membership in several breakaway liberation movements, a holistic view of his independent character emerges.

This was particularly notable in an era in which an absolute commitment to unity was a key facet of the defining ideology of the struggle, pan-Africanism.

What role did he play in the liberation struggle?

Sithole was an executive member of four Zimbabwean liberation movements. In 1964 he became the publicity secretary of Zanu-PF, Zimbabwe’s current ruling party, then known as the Zimbabwe African National Union. He was that party’s chief spokesperson 60 years ago this November when the colony’s small white minority unilaterally declared its independence from Britain.

The last decade of Sithole’s life was spent trying to end this rebellion and usher in genuine independence under majority rule.

When the Conservative British government appeared poised to reach a settlement favourable to continued white domination, Sithole co-founded the African National Council (ANC) in December 1971. Its opposition to the tentative accord forced the British government to abandon that effort to reconcile with their settler “kith and kin” in Rhodesia.

White minority rule dragged on for eight more years and thousands lost their lives in the struggle to affect a change, including Sithole.

Sithole’s intellectual profile was particularly impressive as he spent more than half of his adult life as a political prisoner. He was first detained in 1959 at the age of 23. He completed a master’s degree in law from the University of London via correspondence during that first stint of restriction. During a second period of imprisonment, he completed most of his work toward a Doctor of Laws from the University of South Africa.

Why was 1974 such a pivotal year?

In April 1974, the hardline Estado Novo regime in Portugal was overthrown in a military coup. It soon became clear that Portugal would dismantle its colonial empire, including Mozambique and Angola.

This development transformed the political scene in southern Africa. White Rhodesia was deprived of a major European ally and a secure border on its eastern flank. At the end of that year, all four of Zimbabwe’s major liberation movements united under the banner of the African National Council in Zambia.

For some of the most prominent Zimbabwean nationalists, such as Nkomo and Robert Mugabe, the Portuguese revolution resulted in their release from prison, culminating in their ascent to political power in independent Zimbabwe in early 1980.

Sithole, however, experienced no fruits of détente. Instead he became enmeshed in a political struggle with both the settler state and his erstwhile nationalist colleagues.

In early June 1975, intra African National Council violence erupted between factions loyal to its head, Abel Muzorewa, whom Sithole backed, and Nkomo, a long-time foe of Sithole, who had headed the Zimbabwe African People’s Union.

Nearly a dozen people were killed and Sithole was manhandled by Nkomo loyalists.

Near the end of the month, Sithole released a document which claimed that Nkomo and prime minister Ian Smith had reached a secret deal to elevate Nkomo to the head of the African National Council. Days later, Sithole developed severe stomach cramps. He declared that the settler state had poisoned him, an allegation backed by a Zambian doctor who treated him.

Tensions increased. The last month of Sithole’s life was consumed by attempts to derail any possible attempt by Nkomo and the Zapu element in the African National Council to reach an accord with the Rhodesian state.

What’s known about his abduction?

On Sithole’s last day as an independent man – 15 October 1975 – he held a press conference which accused the settler state of favouring Nkomo, whose faction had recently been allowed to hold a massive open-air meeting.

Two detectives visited Sithole at his office that afternoon and took a statement.

That evening, he made the short drive to the Ambassador Hotel in his blue BMW for drinks at the Quill Club.

Sithole left the hotel around 7pm, where a witness outside saw him met by two white and two black men who identified themselves as belonging to Rhodesia’s Special Branch. They escorted Sithole and his secretary into a grey Mazda van, a make typically associated with the renegade state’s security apparatus.

International media accounts identified Detective Inspector Winston Hart and Detective Section Officer George Mitchell as the two white men. As recently as April 2023, an interview with Hart about his service in Rhodesia popped up on YouTube.

Sithole was never seen again, although persistent rumours claimed that he had been seen in various government detention centres.

Sithole was just one of tens of thousands of individuals who died during Zimbabwe’s independence struggle.

Unlike South Africa, Zimbabwe did not embrace any formal transitional justice mechanism following independence. After Mugabe was voted into power, he announced:

We will be interested to get some evidence as to what happened to Dr. Sithole. (16 March 1980 issue of the Zimbabwean Sunday Mail)

Nothing substantial ever came out of the inquiry.

The Conversation

Brooks Marmon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Edson Sithole: new book uncovers the work of a thinker, lawyer and Zimbabwean freedom fighter who ‘disappeared’ – https://theconversation.com/edson-sithole-new-book-uncovers-the-work-of-a-thinker-lawyer-and-zimbabwean-freedom-fighter-who-disappeared-265765

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How the arts strengthen newcomer settlement in Canada

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Jeremie Molho, Senior Research Associate, Canada Excellence Chair in Migration and Integration Program, Toronto Metropolitan University

Settling in a new country is often imagined as a sequential process, built on a supposed hierarchy of needs. You accomplish one priority, then another, and another and then you’re integrated into the country and economy.

Material and essential matters — housing, employment, language classes — come first. Cultural or spiritual matters — a sense of belonging, community connections, civic participation — come second.

The recently released research I conducted with Toronto Arts Council (TAC) on its Program for Newcomers and Refugees (PNR), however, suggests this logic needs to be challenged.

What does art have to do with settlement?

Founded in 1974, TAC is an independent funding organization that operates at arm’s length from the City of Toronto. Its mission is to enrich the quality of life in the city by supporting the arts. The decision to create a program specifically for newcomers was driven by research highlighting the barriers newcomer artists faced in finding work and navigating the Canadian arts landscape.

The PNR launched in 2017 and has allocated about $2.92 million between its inception and 2023. Forty organizations received support through the Newcomer and Refugee Arts Engagement stream, while 176 individual artists received Newcomer and Refugee Artist Mentorship grants.

Two years ago, along with TAC, I began researching to learn about who benefited from this support and how. We held focus groups with newcomer artists, arts managers and settlement organizations, analyzed program data and produced film portraits of two artists.

Our goal was to understand what the arts contribute to integration and what challenges newcomer artists face. Our findings show that the divide between settlement and the arts should be reconsidered.

Instead of being treated as separate domains, they can complement each other in ways that strengthen integration.

The arts as holistic settlement support

The Newcomer and Refugee Arts Engagement stream provides grants to organizations — including settlement agencies, community arts organizations and artistic institutions — with experience serving newcomers through artistic activities. Beneficiaries of the engagement stream showed that arts projects are not cosmetic add-ons.

Community arts professionals work hand in hand with settlement workers to address practical barriers from the outset.

Child care is arranged so mothers can attend. Interpreters support multilingual workshops. Programs offer snacks and Toronto Transit Commission fare. Schedules are adapted to hospitality and shift-work hours. These small design choices make participation possible.

The outcomes are multidimensional. Arts programs support language learning in low-pressure, confidence-building settings. They open pathways to employment through the acquisition of digital skills, production experience and access to professional networks. They reduce isolation and support mental health by creating safe, culturally sensitive spaces.

Newcomers Dance Too!, a free dance class for refugee-background women and girls in Flemington Park run by dancers from Fusion Cardio Toronto — which was promoted in Arabic, Urdu, Punjabi and other languages — is one example.

StoryCentre Canada, a non-profit that empowers short multimedia first-person narratives, set up digital storytelling workshops that taught photography and video editing while letting participants share their stories in the language of their choice, building both technical and communication skills. Hinprov, a collective of South Asian improvisers, created spaces where expression was possible even for those still learning English.

Six women surround a table where they work on multimedia projects.
Participants working on their projects for the digital storytelling workshop at StoryCentre Canada.
StoryCentre Canada, CC BY

Arts projects also spark civic conversations. At Matthew House, which offers transitional housing settlement assistance, a mural led by a refugee artist-in-residence prompted neighbours to ask questions about refugees, opening dialogue that challenged stereotypes. Another PNR project collaborated with LGBTQ+ newcomers, using photography and film to counter stigma and create networks of care.

These initiatives show how the arts allow creative newcomers to assert their voices and identities on their own terms, positioning them not simply as guests but as active shapers of the cultural fabric of their new country.

Newcomer artists face systemic barriers

Newcomer artists design and deliver effective arts-based projects. Their ability to contribute, however, is limited by systemic obstacles.

General settlement services rarely provide tailored guidance for creative careers. Newcomer artists are directed toward generic job markets or told to pursue “Canadian credentials,” with little information about arts funding, networks or sector norms.

Discrimination compounds these hurdles: accents and linguistic differences become barriers to casting and collaboration; racial bias and expectations about “ethnic” content narrow opportunities; western-centrism and unfamiliarity with certain artistic traditions from outside the West devalue skills gained abroad. For instance, an Indian musician criticized the tendency to classify Indian classical music as “world music” rather than recognizing it as a classical form, limiting its appropriate recognition and funding.

Administrative rules add further exclusions. Temporary residents may be ineligible for public arts funding. Artists living in the Toronto area but outside the city proper can be excluded by residency requirements, even when they exhibit and perform in Toronto. These policies limit access to precisely the resources that help artists integrate into local scenes.

As part of our project, we worked with filmmaker Ogo Eze to produce two short portraits of newcomer artists: Iranian artist Aitak Sorahitalab and Palestinian-Syrian musician Tarek Ghriri.

Both stories illustrate how, despite formidable challenges, newcomers can become community leaders, using their art to support other newcomers while enriching Toronto’s cultural scene. Their stories show resilience but also underline how much potential is lost when systemic barriers remain in place.

“Strings of Resilience” portrays Syrian musician Tarek Ghriri’s journey of resettlement in Canada. Through music, he navigates displacement, fosters community connections and challenges stereotypes about refugees.
“Clay of Freedom” follows Iranian artist Aitak Sorahitalab as she rebuilds her artistic career in Toronto. The film highlights both the challenges faced by newcomer artists and the creative ways they support their communities through art.

Mending the arts and settlement divide

We have too often treated settlement and the arts as separate and incompatible worlds. Bridging them requires a shift on both sides.

On the settlement side, we must move away from sequential-needs thinking that relegates the arts to the bottom of the priority list or treats cultural activities as communications window dressing. This underestimates the concrete, multifaceted support community arts professionals can provide and sidelines newcomer artists.

On the arts side, TAC’s program is a promising template. By offering targeted support to newcomers, the PNR acknowledges the particular challenges they face when starting out, while avoiding the trap of permanently labelling them as “migrant artists.”

Given that only two per cent of Canadian arts funders offer targeted support for newcomers, lessons from this program can guide similar initiatives across Canada and beyond.

The Conversation

Jeremie Molho received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Partnership Engage Grant for the project Fostering Integration through the Arts: Learning from Toronto Arts Council’s Program for Newcomers and Refugees’, conducted in partnership with Toronto Arts Council

– ref. How the arts strengthen newcomer settlement in Canada – https://theconversation.com/how-the-arts-strengthen-newcomer-settlement-in-canada-265462

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Sex-motivated violence should be treated as a hate crime

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Debra M Haak, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Queen’s University, Ontario

Canada recently introduced the Combatting Hate Act, legislation that will create three new criminal offences intended to strengthen protections against hate.

The first new offence targets hate crimes directly for the first time in Canada. The second targets intimidation and obstruction. The third expands an existing criminal law targeting wilful promotion of hatred.

Canada’s hate crime laws apply to acts of hatred towards identifiable groups, those distinguished by colour, race, religion, national or ethnic origin, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or mental or physical disability.

Hate crimes are under-reported, under-recorded and under-prosecuted in most jurisdictions where legislation exists.

Data from Statistics Canada shows that in 2019, nearly 250,000 people reported they were victims of hate-motivated incidents, but fewer than one per cent were investigated as hate crimes.

Sex-motivated violence is common

Acts of hatred towards women and girls regularly occur in Canada. Some involve violence. Femicide is defined as the killing of women and girls because of their sex or gender. However, sex-motivated violence is rarely treated as hate crime.

The Montréal Massacre is the best known example of sex-motivated killing in Canada. On Dec. 6, 1989, a lone white male, armed with a gun, entered École Polytechnique at the Université of Montréal and killed 14 women. He killed them because they were women and, in his view, feminists, towards whom he expressed hatred.



Read more:
Montréal Massacre anniversary: The media must play a key role in fighting femicide

This mass femicide has never been officially recognized as a hate-motivated crime in Canada.

Other mass killings of women also reveal sex-motivated hatred. The Toronto van attack in 2018 was perpetrated by a male who admitted he drew inspiration from the so-called incel online subculture of men united by sexual frustration and a hatred of women.

The fact that the attack was motivated by hatred towards women does not appear to have been considered at sentencing.



Read more:
Toronto van attack: Guilty verdict, but Canada still needs to tackle ideological violence

Hatred based on sex

In June 2022, the Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario held an inquest into one of the worst instances of intimate partner femicide in Canadian history. It involved the killings of three women by one man in eastern Ontario in 2015.

In that case, the sentencing judge said the perpetrator was “a violent, vindictive, calculating abuser of women” who “took his hatred to its ultimate climax and committed triple murders.”

Sex-motivated violence is not limited to mass killings. A woman or girl is killed every other day in Canada. A significant number of these deaths are also motivated by hatred based on sex.

In many cases, violence against women and girls is not only sex-motivated. It is well-documented that many of the disappearances and deaths of Indigenous women and girls also involve racially motivated hatred as well as systemic misogyny and racism, particularly by police.

Sex-motivated violence not treated as hate

Yet our research has revealed that violence motivated by hatred of women and girls is relatively invisible in crime reporting data, sentencing and public discourse.

Sex-motivated violence against women and girls is seldom recorded as hate crime. Sex has never comprised more than three per cent of police-reported hate crime in Canada, despite self-reported data showing at least 22 per cent of Canadians — mostly women — have experienced hate.

Sex-motivated hate, in fact, was the most under-reported category of hate crime when comparing self-reported data to police data.

Neither is sex-motivated violence sentenced as a hate crime, despite the fact that the Criminal Code already provides for increased sentences when there is evidence an offence was motivated by hate.

Canada’s Department of Justice has found that sex-motivated hatred was one of the least commonly addressed grounds when applying hate as an aggravating factor at sentencing. Based on a review of more than 40 years of case law up to 2020, only seven cases were found to focus on sex. Two of these cases were unsuccessful.

Male violence against women, girls is hate

Hate-motivated crime is significant in Canada. In 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, overall hate crimes reported to police increased by 37 per cent compared to 2019.

The first pillar of Canada’s Action Plan on Combatting Hate is empowering communities to identify hate. That currently does not happen in cases of male violence against women, even though sex is an identified group in Canadian criminal laws targeting hate.

Here are three ways it could happen:

  • Canada should enhance monitoring of hate-motivated gender-based violence.
  • To increase responsiveness to sex-motivated violence, existing and proposed laws targeting sex-motivated hate must be implemented and enforced.
  • Canada should promote an understanding of male violence against women and girls as a form of hate. The new laws and the focus they bring to this issue could help.

For hate crime legislation to be more than symbolic, crimes motivated by hatred must be reported, recorded, prosecuted and sentenced as hate crimes for all identifiable groups — not just some of them.

The Conversation

Debra M Haak receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Canadian Bar Association Law for the Future Fund.

Myrna Dawson received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and British Columbia’s Office of the Human Rights Commissioner.

– ref. Sex-motivated violence should be treated as a hate crime – https://theconversation.com/sex-motivated-violence-should-be-treated-as-a-hate-crime-265927

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Comment un médicament valant un milliard de dollars a été découvert dans le sol de l’Île de Pâques (et pourquoi scientifiques et industrie pharmaceutique ont une dette envers les peuples autochtones)

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Ted Powers, Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis

Le peuple Rapa Nui est pratiquement absent de l’histoire de la découverte de la rapamycine telle qu’elle est généralement racontée. Posnov/Moment/Getty

La découverte en 1964, sur l’île de Pâques, de la rapamycine, un nouvel antibiotique, a marqué le début d’une success story pharmaceutique à plusieurs milliards de dollars. Pourtant, l’histoire a complètement occulté les individus et les dynamiques politiques qui ont rendu possible l’identification de ce « médicament miracle ».

Baptisé du nom autochtone de l’île, Rapa Nui, la rapamycine a initialement été employée comme immunosuppresseur, afin de prévenir le rejet des greffes d’organes et d’améliorer le taux de succès de l’implantation de stents, de petits treillis métalliques destinés à étayer les artères dans le cadre de la lutte contre la maladie coronarienne (laquelle se traduit par rétrécissement progressif des artères qui nourrissent le cœur, ndlr).

Son usage s’est depuis étendu au traitement de divers types de cancers, et les chercheurs explorent aujourd’hui son potentiel dans le contexte de la prise en charge du diabète,

des maladies neurodégénératives, voire de la lutte contre les méfaits du vieillissement. Ainsi, des études mettant en évidence la capacité de la rapamycine à prolonger la durée de vie ou à combattre les maladies liées à l’âge semblent paraître presque quotidiennement depuis quelque temps… Une requête sur PubMed, le moteur de recherche recense plus de 59 000 articles mentionnant la rapamycine. Il s’agit de l’un des médicaments qui fait le plus parler de lui dans le domaine médical.

Cependant, bien que la rapamycine soit omniprésente en science et en médecine, la façon dont elle a été découverte demeure largement méconnue du public. En tant que scientifique ayant consacré sa carrière à l’étude de ses effets sur les cellules, j’ai ressenti le besoin de mieux comprendre son histoire.

À ce titre, les travaux de l’historienne Jacalyn Duffin portant sur la Medical Expedition to Easter Island (METEI), une expédition scientifique mise sur pied dans les années 1960, ont complètement changé la manière dont nombre de mes collègues et moi-même envisageons désormais notre domaine de recherche.

La découverte du complexe héritage de la rapamycine soulève en effet d’importantes questions sur les biais systémiques qui existent dans le secteur de la recherche biomédicale, ainsi que sur la dette des entreprises pharmaceutiques envers les territoires autochtones d’où elles extraient leurs molécules phares.

Pourquoi un tel intérêt pour la rapamycine ?

L’action de la rapamycine s’explique par sa capacité à inhiber une protéine appelée target of rapamycin kinase, ou TOR. Cette dernière est l’un des principaux régulateurs de la croissance et du métabolisme cellulaires. De concert avec d’autres protéines partenaires, TOR contrôle la manière dont les cellules répondent aux nutriments, au stress et aux signaux environnementaux, influençant ainsi des processus majeurs tels que la synthèse protéique et la fonction immunitaire.

Compte tenu de son rôle central dans ces activités cellulaires fondamentales, il n’est guère surprenant qu’un dysfonctionnement de TOR puisse se traduire par la survenue de cancers, de troubles métaboliques ou de maladies liées à l’âge.

Structure chimique de la rapamycine
Structure chimique de la rapamycine.
Fvasconcellos/Wikimedia

Un grand nombre des spécialistes du domaine savent que cette molécule a été isolée au milieu des années 1970 par des scientifiques travaillant au sein du laboratoire pharmaceutique Ayerst Research Laboratories, à partir d’un échantillon de sol contenant la bactérie Streptomyces hydroscopicus. Ce que l’on sait moins, c’est que cet échantillon a été prélevé dans le cadre d’une mission canadienne appelée Medical Expedition to Easter Island, ou METEI, menée à Rapa Nui – l’Île de Pâques – en 1964.

Histoire de la METEI

L’idée de la Medical Expedition to Easter Island (METEI) a germé au sein d’une équipe de scientifiques canadiens composée du chirurgien Stanley Skoryna et du bactériologiste Georges Nogrady. Leur objectif était de comprendre comment une population isolée s’adaptait au stress environnemental. Ils estimaient que la prévision de la construction d’un aéroport international sur l’île de Pâques offrait une occasion unique d’éclairer cette question. Selon eux, en accroissant les contacts de la population de l’île avec l’extérieur, l’aéroport risquait d’entraîner des changements dans sa santé et son bien-être.

Financée par l’Organisation mondiale de la santé, et soutenue logistiquement par la Marine royale canadienne, la METEI arriva à Rapa Nui en décembre 1964. Durant trois mois, l’équipe fit passer à la quasi-totalité des 1 000 habitants de l’île toute une batterie d’examens médicaux, collectant des échantillons biologiques et procédant à un inventaire systématique de la flore et de la faune insulaires.

Dans le cadre de ces travaux, Georges Nogrady recueillit plus de 200 échantillons de sol, dont l’un s’est avéré contenir la souche de bactéries Streptomyces productrice de rapamycine.

Affiche du mot METEI écrit verticalement entre l’arrière de deux têtes de moaï, avec l’inscription « 1964-1965 RAPA NUI INA KA HOA (N’abandonnez pas le navire) »
Logo du METEI.
Georges Nogrady, CC BY-NC-ND

Il est important de comprendre que l’objectif premier de l’expédition était d’étudier le peuple de Rapa Nui, dans un contexte qui était vu comme celui d’un laboratoire à ciel ouvert. Pour encourager les habitants à participer, les chercheurs n’ont pas hésité à recourir à la corruption, leur offrant des cadeaux, de la nourriture et diverses fournitures. Ils ont également eu recours à la coercition : à cet effet, ils se sont assuré les services d’un prêtre franciscain en poste de longue date sur l’île pour les aider au recrutement. Si leurs intentions étaient peut-être honorables, il s’agit néanmoins là d’un exemple de colonialisme scientifique dans lequel une équipe d’enquêteurs blancs choisit d’étudier un groupe majoritairement non blanc sans son concours, ce qui crée un déséquilibre de pouvoir. Un biais inhérent à l’expédition existait donc dès la conception de la METEI.

Par ailleurs, plusieurs des hypothèses de départ avaient été formulées sur des bases erronées. D’une part, les chercheurs supposaient que les habitants de Rapa Nui avaient été relativement isolés du reste du monde, alors qu’il existait en réalité une longue histoire d’interactions avec des pays extérieurs, comme en témoignaient divers récits dont les plus anciens remontaient au début du XVIIIe siècle, et dont les publications s’étalaient jusqu’à la fin du XIXe siècle.

D’autre part, les organisateurs de la METEI partaient du postulat que le bagage génétique de la population de Rapa Nui était homogène, sans tenir compte de la complexe histoire de l’île en matière de migrations, d’esclavage et de maladies (certains habitants étaient en effet les descendants de survivants de la traite des esclaves africains qui furent renvoyés sur l’île et y apportèrent certaines maladies, dont la variole). La population moderne de Rapa Nui est en réalité métissée, issue à la fois d’ancêtres polynésiens, sud-américains, voire africains.

Cette erreur d’appréciation a sapé l’un des objectifs clés du METEI : évaluer l’influence de la génétique sur le risque de maladie. Si l’équipe a publié un certain nombre d’études décrivant la faune associée à Rapa Nui, son incapacité à établir une base de référence est probablement l’une des raisons pour lesquelles aucune étude de suivi n’a été menée après l’achèvement de l’aéroport de l’île de Pâques en 1967.

Rendre crédit à qui de droit

Les omissions qui existent dans les récits sur les origines de la rapamycine sont le reflet d’angles morts éthiques fréquemment présents dans la manière dont on se souvient des découvertes scientifiques.

Georges Nogrady rapporta de Rapa Nui des échantillons de sol, dont l’un parvint à Ayerst Research Laboratories. Là, Surendra Sehgal et son équipe isolèrent ce qui fut nommé rapamycine, qu’ils finirent par commercialiser à la fin des années 1990 en tant qu’immunosuppresseur, sous le nom Rapamune. Si l’on connaît bien l’obstination de Sehgal, qui fut déterminante pour mener à bien le projet en dépit des bouleversements qui agitaient à cette époque la société pharmaceutique pour laquelle il travaillait – il alla même jusqu’à dissimuler une culture de bactéries chez lui – ni Nogrady ni la METEI ne furent jamais crédités dans les principaux articles scientifiques qu’il publia.

Bien que la rapamycine ait généré des milliards de dollars de revenus, le peuple de Rapa Nui n’en a tiré aucun bénéfice financier à ce jour. Cela soulève des questions sur les droits des peuples autochtones ainsi que sur la biopiraterie (qui peut être définie comme « l’appropriation illégitime par un sujet, notamment par voie de propriété intellectuelle, parfois de façon illicite, de ressources naturelles, et/ou éventuellement de ressources culturelles en lien avec elles, au détriment d’un autre sujet », ndlr), autrement dit dans ce contexte la commercialisation de connaissances autochtones sans contrepartie.

Des accords tels que la Convention des Nations unies de 1992 sur la diversité biologique et la Déclaration de 2007 sur les droits des peuples autochtones visent à protéger les revendications autochtones sur les ressources biologiques, en incitant tous les pays à obtenir le consentement et la participation des populations concernées, et à prévoir des réparations pour les préjudices potentiels avant d’entreprendre des projets.

Ces principes n’étaient cependant pas en vigueur à l’époque du METEI.

Gros plans de visages alignés portant des couronnes de fleurs dans une pièce sombre
Les habitants de Rapa Nui n’ont reçu que peu ou pas de reconnaissance pour leur rôle dans la découverte de la rapamycine.
Esteban Felix/AP Photo

Certaines personnes soutiennent que, puisque la bactérie productrice de rapamycine a été trouvée ailleurs que dans le sol de l’île de Pâques, ce dernier n’était ni unique ni essentiel à la découverte du médicament. D’autres avancent aussi qu’étant donné que les insulaires n’utilisaient pas la rapamycine et n’en connaissaient pas l’existence sur leur île, cette molécule ne constituait pas une ressource susceptible d’être « volée ».

Cependant, la découverte de la rapamycine à Rapa Nui a jeté les bases de l’ensemble des recherches et de la commercialisation ultérieures autour de cette molécule. Cela n’a été possible que parce que la population a été l’objet de l’étude montée par l’équipe canadienne. La reconnaissance formelle du rôle essentiel joué par les habitants de Rapa Nui dans la découverte de la rapamycine, ainsi que la sensibilisation du public à ce sujet, sont essentielles pour les indemniser à hauteur de leur contribution.

Ces dernières années, l’industrie pharmaceutique a commencé à reconnaître l’importance d’indemniser équitablement les contributions autochtones. Certaines sociétés se sont engagées à réinvestir dans les communautés d’où proviennent les précieux produits naturels qu’elles exploitent.

Toutefois, s’agissant des Rapa Nui, les entreprises qui ont directement tiré profit de la rapamycine n’ont pas encore fait un tel geste.

Si la découverte de la rapamycine a sans conteste transformé la médecine, il est plus complexe d’évaluer les conséquences pour le peuple de Rapa Nui de l’expédition METEI. En définitive, son histoire est à la fois celle d’un triomphe scientifique et d’ambiguïtés sociales.

Je suis convaincu que les questions qu’elle soulève (consentement biomédical, colonialisme scientifique et occultation de certaines contributions) doivent nous faire prendre conscience qu’il est nécessaire d’examiner de façon plus critique qu’ils ne l’ont été jusqu’à présent les héritages des découvertes scientifiques majeures.

The Conversation

Ted Powers ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

– ref. Comment un médicament valant un milliard de dollars a été découvert dans le sol de l’Île de Pâques (et pourquoi scientifiques et industrie pharmaceutique ont une dette envers les peuples autochtones) – https://theconversation.com/comment-un-medicament-valant-un-milliard-de-dollars-a-ete-decouvert-dans-le-sol-de-lile-de-paques-et-pourquoi-scientifiques-et-industrie-pharmaceutique-ont-une-dette-envers-les-peuples-autochtones-266381

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En 2030, la NASA dira adieu à la station spatiale internationale et entrera dans l’ère des stations commerciales

Source: The Conversation – in French – By John M. Horack, Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Ohio State University

La Station spatiale internationale sera désorbitée en 2030. NASA via AP

La Station spatiale internationale vit ses dernières années : en 2030, elle sera désorbitée. Vingt-cinq ans d’occupation continue laisseront alors place à une nouvelle ère, celle des stations spatiales commerciales.

Depuis novembre 2000, la NASA et ses partenaires internationaux assurent sans interruption une présence humaine en orbite basse, avec toujours au moins un Américain à bord. Une continuité qui fêtera bientôt ses 25 ans.

Dans l’histoire de l’exploration spatiale, la Station spatiale internationale apparaît sans doute comme l’une des plus grandes réalisations de l’humanité, un exemple éclatant de coopération dans l’espace entre les États-Unis, l’Europe, le Canada, le Japon et la Russie. Mais même les plus belles aventures ont une fin.

Un emblème représentant une photo de la Station spatiale internationale, entourée d’un anneau où figurent les drapeaux des pays partenaires
L’emblème de la Station spatiale internationale arbore les drapeaux des États signataires d’origine.
CSA/ESA/JAXA/NASA/ROSCOSMOS

En 2030, la Station spatiale internationale sera désorbitée : elle sera dirigée vers une zone isolée du Pacifique.

Je suis ingénieur en aérospatiale et j’ai contribué à la conception de nombreux équipements et expériences pour l’ISS. Membre de la communauté spatiale depuis plus de trente ans, dont dix-sept au sein de la NASA, il me sera difficile d’assister à la fin de cette aventure.

Depuis le lancement des premiers modules en 1998, la Station spatiale internationale a été le théâtre d’avancées scientifiques majeures dans des domaines tels que la science des matériaux, la biotechnologie, l’astronomie et l’astrophysique, les sciences de la Terre, la combustion et bien d’autres encore.

Les recherches menées par les astronautes à bord de la station et les expériences scientifiques installées sur sa structure extérieure ont donné lieu à de nombreuses publications dans des revues à comité de lecture. Certaines ont permis de mieux comprendre les orages, d’améliorer les procédés de cristallisation de médicaments essentiels contre le cancer, de préciser comment développer des rétines artificielles en apesanteur, d’explorer la production de fibres optiques ultrapures et d’expliquer comment séquencer l’ADN en orbite.

Vue de dessus d’un scientifique en blouse de laboratoire et portant des gants, manipulant une pipette sur un plan de travail à bord de l’ISS
L’environnement en microgravité de l’ISS en fait un cadre idéal pour une grande variété de projets de recherche scientifique.
NASA, CC BY

Au total, plus de 4 000 expériences ont été menées à bord de l’ISS, donnant lieu à plus de 4 400 publications scientifiques destinées à améliorer la vie sur Terre et à tracer la voie de futures activités d’exploration spatiale.

La station a démontré toute la valeur de la recherche conduite dans l’environnement unique des vols spatiaux – marqué par une très faible gravité, le vide, des cycles extrêmes de température et des radiations – pour faire progresser la compréhension d’une large gamme de processus physiques, chimiques et biologiques.

Maintenir une présence en orbite

Avec le retrait annoncé de la station, la NASA et ses partenaires internationaux n’abandonnent pas pour autant leur avant-poste en orbite terrestre basse. Ils cherchent au contraire des alternatives pour continuer à exploiter le potentiel de ce laboratoire de recherche unique et prolonger la présence humaine ininterrompue maintenue depuis 25 ans à quelque 402 kilomètres au-dessus de la Terre.

En décembre 2021, la NASA a annoncé trois contrats visant à soutenir le développement de stations spatiales privées et commerciales en orbite basse. Depuis plusieurs années, l’agence confie déjà le ravitaillement de l’ISS à des partenaires privés. Plus récemment, elle a adopté un dispositif similaire avec SpaceX et Boeing pour le transport d’astronautes à bord respectivement de la capsule Dragon et du vaisseau Starliner.

Un vaisseau spatial blanc de forme conique avec deux panneaux solaires rectangulaires en orbite, la Terre en arrière-plan
La capsule Dragon de SpaceX s’amarre à l’ISS.
NASA TV via AP

Fort de ces succès, la NASA a investi plus de 400 millions de dollars pour stimuler le développement de stations spatiales commerciales, avec l’espoir de les voir opérationnelles avant la mise hors service de l’ISS.

L’aube des stations spatiales commerciales

En septembre 2025, la NASA a publié un projet d’appel à propositions pour la phase 2 des partenariats concernant les stations spatiales commerciales. Les entreprises retenues recevront des financements pour réaliser les revues critiques de conception et démontrer le bon fonctionnement de stations capables d’accueillir quatre personnes en orbite pendant au moins 30 jours.

La NASA procédera ensuite à une validation et une certification formelles afin de garantir que ces stations répondent à ses normes de sécurité les plus strictes. Cela permettra ensuite à l’agence d’acheter des missions et des services à bord de ces stations sur une base commerciale – de la même manière qu’elle le fait déjà pour le transport de fret et d’équipages vers l’ISS. Reste à savoir quelles entreprises réussiront ce pari, et selon quel calendrier.

Pendant que ces stations verront le jour, les astronautes chinois continueront à vivre et à travailler à bord de leur station Tiangong, un complexe orbital habité en permanence par trois personnes, évoluant à environ 400 kilomètres au-dessus de la Terre. Si la continuité habitée de l’ISS venait à s’interrompre, la Chine et Tiangong prendraient ainsi le relais comme station spatiale habitée sans discontinuité la plus ancienne en activité. Tiangong est occupée depuis environ quatre ans.

Photos et vidéos de l’ISS permettant d’observer la Terre depuis l’orbite.

En attendant, levons les yeux

Il faudra encore plusieurs années avant que les nouvelles stations spatiales commerciales n’encerclent la Terre à environ 28 000 kilomètres par heure et avant que l’ISS ne soit désorbitée en 2030.

D’ici là, il suffit de lever les yeux pour profiter du spectacle. Lors de ses passages, l’ISS apparaît la plupart des nuits comme un point bleu-blanc éclatant, souvent l’objet le plus brillant du ciel, traçant silencieusement une courbe gracieuse à travers la voûte étoilée. Nos ancêtres n’auraient sans doute jamais imaginé qu’un jour, l’un des objets les plus lumineux du ciel nocturne serait conçu par l’esprit humain et assemblé par la main de l’homme.

The Conversation

John M. Horack a reçu des financements de recherche externes de la NASA, de Voyager Technologies et d’autres organismes liés au domaine spatial, dans le cadre de son travail de professeur à l’Université d’État de l’Ohio.

– ref. En 2030, la NASA dira adieu à la station spatiale internationale et entrera dans l’ère des stations commerciales – https://theconversation.com/en-2030-la-nasa-dira-adieu-a-la-station-spatiale-internationale-et-entrera-dans-lere-des-stations-commerciales-266506

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Meet Irene Curie, the Nobel-winning atomic physicist who changed the course of modern cancer treatment

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Artemis Spyrou, Professor of Nuclear Physics, Michigan State University

Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie shared the Nobel Prize in 1935. Bettmann/Contributor via Getty Images

The adage goes “like mother like daughter,” and in the case of Irene Joliot-Curie, truer words were never spoken. She was the daughter of two Nobel Prize laureates, Marie Curie and Pierre Curie, and was herself awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1935 together with her husband, Frederic Joliot.

While her parents received the prize for the discovery of natural radioactivity, Irene’s prize was for the synthesis of artificial radioactivity. This discovery changed many fields of science and many aspects of our everyday lives. Artificial radioactivity is used today in medicine, agriculture, energy production, food sterilization, industrial quality control and more.

Two portraits, one on the left of a man with dark hair wearing a suit, Frederic Joliot, and on the right, of Irene Joliot-Curie, who has ear-length hair.
Frederic Joliot and Irene Joliot-Curie.
Wellcome Collection, CC BY

We are two nuclear physicists who perform experiments at different accelerator facilities around the world. Irene’s discovery laid the foundation for our experimental studies, which use artificial radioactivity to understand questions related to astrophysics, energy, medicine and more.

Early years and battlefield training

Irene Curie was born in Paris, France, in 1897. In an unusual schooling setup, Irene was one of a group of children taught by their academic parents, including her own by then famous mother, Marie Curie.

Marie Curie sits at a table with scientific equipment on it. Irene Curie stands next to her, fiddling with the equipment.
Marie Curie and her daughter Irene were both scientists studying radioactivity.
Wellcome Collection, CC BY

World War I started in 1914, when Irene was only 17, and she interrupted her studies to help her mother find fragments of bombs in wounded soldiers using portable X-ray machines. She soon became an expert in these wartime radiology techniques, and on top of performing the measurements herself, she also spent time training nurses to use the X-ray machines.

After the war, Irene went back to her studies in her mother’s lab at the Radium Institute. This is where she met fellow researcher Frederic Joliot, whom she later married. The two worked together on many projects, which led them to their major breakthrough in 1934.

A radioactive discovery

Isotopes are variations of a particular element that have the same number of protons – positively charged particles – and different numbers of neutrons, which are particles with no charge. While some isotopes are stable, the majority are radioactive and called radioisotopes. These radioisotopes spontaneously transform into different elements and release radiation – energetic particles or light – in a process called radioactive decay.

At the time of Irene and Frederic’s discovery, the only known radioactive isotopes came from natural ores, through a costly and extremely time-consuming process. Marie and Pierre Curie had spent years studying the natural radioactivity in tons of uranium ores.

In Irene and Frederic’s experiments, they bombarded aluminum samples with alpha particles, which consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together – they are atomic nuclei of the isotope helium-4.

In previous studies, they had observed the different types of radiation their samples emitted while being bombarded. The radiation would cease when they took away the source of alpha particles. In the aluminum experiment, however, they noticed that even after they removed the alpha source, they could still detect radiation.

The amount of radiation decreased by half every three minutes, and they concluded that the radiation came from the decay of a radioisotope of the element phosphorus. Phosphorus has two additional protons compared to aluminum and was formed when the alpha particles fused with the aluminum nuclei. This was the first identification of an artificially made radioisotope, phosphorus-30. Because phosphorus-30 was created after bombarding aluminum with alpha particles – rather than occurring in its natural state – Irene and Frederic induced the radioactivity. So, it is called artificial radioactivity.

A diagram showing an atom of 27-aluminum next to an alpha which is made of two neutrons and two protons. Next to it is an arrow to a lone neutron and an atom of 30-phosphorus with an arrow labeled 'positron' coming off it.
In Irene and Frederic’s experiments, an isotope of aluminum was hit with an alpha particle (two neutrons and two protons bound together). The collision resulted in two protons and a neutron from the alpha particle binding to the aluminum, making it an isotope of phosphorus, which decayed, releasing a particle called a positron.
Artemis Spyrou

After her major discovery, Irene stayed active not only in research but in activism and politics as well. In 1936, almost a decade before women gained the right to vote in France, she was appointed under secretary of state for scientific research. In this position, she laid the foundations for what would become the National Centre for Scientific Research, which is the French equivalent of the U.S. National Science Foundation or National Institutes of Health.

She co-created the French Atomic Energy Commission in 1945 and held a six-year term, promoting nuclear research and development of the first French nuclear reactor. She later became director of the Curie Laboratory at the Radium Institute and a professor at the Faculty of Science in Paris.

Medical uses of artificial radioactivity

The Joliot-Curie discovery opened the road to the extensive use of radioisotopes in medical applications. Today, radioactive iodine is used regularly to treat thyroid diseases. Radioisotopes that emit positrons – the positive equivalent of the electron – are used in medical PET scans to image and diagnose cancer, and others are used for cancer therapy.

To diagnose cancer, practitioners can inject a small amount of the radioisotope into the body, where it accumulates at specific organs. Specialized devices such as a PET scanner can then detect the radioactivity from the outside. This way, doctors can visualize how these organs are working without the need for surgery.

To then treat cancer, practitioners use large amounts of radiation to kill the cancer cells. They try to localize the application of the radioisotope to just where the cancer is so that they’re only minimally affecting healthy tissue.

An enduring legacy

In the 90 years since the Joliot-Curie discovery of the first artificial radioisotope, the field of nuclear science has expanded its reach to roughly 3,000 artificial radioisotopes, from hydrogen to the heaviest known element, oganesson. However, nuclear theories predict that up to 7,000 artificial radioisotopes are possible.

As physicists, we work with data from a new facility at Michigan State University, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, which is expected to discover up to 1,000 new radioisotopes.

A graph showing protons on the Y axis and neutrons on the X axis, with an upwards trend line labeled 'stable isotopes' and a cloud of data points surrounding it labeled 'radioisotopes produced in experiments' and 'radioisotopes predicted to exist'
Scientists graph the known isotopes in the chart of nuclei. They have discovered roughly 3,000 radioisotopes (shown with cyan boxes) and predict the existence of another 4,000 radioisotopes (shown with gray boxes).
Facility for Rare Isotope Beams

While the Joliot-Curies were bombarding their samples with alpha particles at relatively low speeds, the Michigan State facility can accelerate stable isotopes up to half the speed of light and smash them on a target to produce new radioisotopes. Scientists using the facility have already discovered five new radioisotopes since it began operating in 2022, and the search continues.

Each of the thousands of available radioisotopes has a different set of properties. They live for different amounts of time and emit different types of radiation and amounts of energy. This variability allows scientists to choose the right isotope for the right application.

Iodine, for example, has more than 40 known radioisotopes. A main characteristic of radioisotopes is their half-life, meaning the amount of time it takes for half of the isotopes in the sample to transform into a new element. Iodine radioisotopes have half-lives that span from a tenth of a second to 16 million years. But not all of them are useful, practical or safe for thyroid treatment.

A diagram showing an atom of 131-Iodine, with an arrow to an atom of 131-Xenon, representing decay. Coming off the Xenon is an arrow denoting an electron, and a wavy arrow denoting radiation.
The iodine radioisotope used in cancer therapy has a half-life of eight days. Eight days is long enough to kill cancer cells in the body, but not so long that the radioactivity poses a long-term threat to the patient and those around them.
Artemis Spyrou

Radioisotopes that live for a few seconds don’t exist long enough to perform medical procedures, and radioisotopes that live for years would harm the patient and their family. Because it lives for a few days, iodine-131 is the preferred medical radioisotope.

Artificial radioactivity can also help scientists study the universe’s mysteries. For example, stars are fueled by nuclear reactions and radioactive decay in their cores. In violent stellar events, such as when a star explodes at the end of its life, they produce thousands of different radioisotopes that can drive the explosion. For this reason, scientists, including the two of us. produce and study in the lab the radioisotopes found in stars.

With the advent of the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams and other accelerator facilities, the search for new radioisotopes will continue opening doors to a world of possibilities.

The Conversation

Artemis Spyrou receives funding from the National Science Foundation.

Andrea Richard receives funding from the Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration.

– ref. Meet Irene Curie, the Nobel-winning atomic physicist who changed the course of modern cancer treatment – https://theconversation.com/meet-irene-curie-the-nobel-winning-atomic-physicist-who-changed-the-course-of-modern-cancer-treatment-264840

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How VR and AI could help the next generation grow kinder and more connected

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Ekaterina Muravevskaia, Assistant Professor of Human-Centered Computing, Indiana University

Technology can be isolating, but it can also help kids learn emotional connection. Dusan Stankovic/E+ via Getty Images

Empathy is not just a “nice-to-have” soft skill – it is a foundation of how children and adults regulate emotions, build friendships and learn from one another.

Between the ages of 6 and 9, children begin shifting from being self-centered to noticing the emotions and perspectives of others. This makes early childhood one of the most important periods for developing empathy and other social-emotional skills.

Traditionally, pretend play has been a natural way to practice empathy. Many adults can remember acting out scenes as doctor and patient, or using sticks and leaves as imaginary currency. Those playful moments were not just entertainment – they were early lessons in empathy and taking someone else’s perspective.

But as children spend more time with technology and less in pretend play, these opportunities are shrinking. Some educators worry that technology is hindering social-emotional learning. Yet research in affective computing – digital systems that recognize emotions, simulate them or both – suggests that technology can also become part of the solution.

Virtual reality, in particular, can create immersive environments where children interact with characters who display emotions as vividly as real humans. I’m a human-computer interaction scientist who studies social-emotional learning in the context of how people use technology. Used thoughtfully, the combination of VR and artificial intelligence could help reshape social-emotional learning practices and serve as a new kind of “empathy classroom” or “emotional regulation simulator.”

Game of emotions

As a part of my doctoral studies at the University of Florida, in 2017 I began developing a VR Empathy Game framework that combines insights from developmental psychology, affective computing and participatory design with children. At the Human-Computer Interaction Lab at the University of Maryland, I worked with their KidsTeam program, where children of 7-11 served as design partners, helping us to imagine what an empathy-focused VR game should feel like.

In 2018, 15 master’s students at the Florida Interactive Entertainment Academy at the University of Central Florida and I created the first game prototype, Why Did Baba Yaga Take My Brother? This game is based on a Russian folktale and introduces four characters, each representing a core emotion: Baba Yaga embodies anger, Goose represents fear, the Older Sister shows happiness and the Younger Sister expresses sadness.

The VR game Why Did Baba Yaga Take My Brother? is designed to help kids develop empathy.

Unlike most games, it does not reward players with points or badges. Instead, children can progress in the game only by getting to know the characters, listening to their stories and practicing empathic actions. For example, they can look at the game’s world through a character’s glasses, revisit their memories or even hug Baba Yaga to comfort her. This design choice reflects a core idea of social-emotional learning: Empathy is not about external rewards but about pausing, reflecting and responding to the needs of others.

My colleagues and I have been refining the game since then and using it to study children and empathy.

Different paths to empathy

We tested the game with elementary school children individually. After asking general questions and giving an empathy survey, we invited children to play the game. We observed their behavior while they were playing and discussed their experience afterward.

Our most important discovery was that children interacted with the VR characters following the main empathic patterns humans usually follow while interacting with each other. Some children displayed cognitive empathy, meaning they had an understanding of the characters’ emotional states. They listened thoughtfully to characters, tapped their shoulders to get their attention, and attempted to help them. At the same time, they were not completely absorbed in the VR characters’ feelings.

cartoon image a woman with horns smiling and holding her arms out theo her sides
Characters in the researchers’ VR game express a range of emotions.
Ekaterina Muravevskaia

Others expressed emotional contagion, directly mirroring characters’ emotions, sometimes becoming so distressed by fear or sadness that it made them stop the game. In addition, a few other children did not connect with the characters at all, focusing mainly on exploring the virtual environment. All three behaviors can happen in real life as well when children interact with their peers.

These findings highlight both the promise and the challenge. VR can indeed evoke powerful empathic responses, but it also raises questions about how to design experiences that support children with different temperaments – some need more stimulation, and others need gentler pacing.

AI eye on emotions

The current big question for us is how to effectively incorporate this type of empathy game into everyday life. In classrooms, VR will not replace real conversations or traditional role-play, but it can enrich them. A teacher might use a short VR scenario to spark discussion, encouraging students to reflect on what they felt and how it connects to their real friendships. In this way, VR becomes a springboard for dialogue, not a stand-alone tool.

We are also exploring adaptive VR systems that respond to a child’s emotional state in real time. A headset might detect if a child is anxious or scared – through facial expressions, heart rate or gaze – and adjust the experience by scaling down the characters’ expressiveness or offering supportive prompts. Such a responsive “empathy classroom” could give children safe opportunities to gradually strengthen their emotional regulation skills.

This is where AI becomes essential. AI systems can make sense of the data collected by VR headsets such as eye gaze, facial expressions, heart rate or body movement and use it to adjust the experience in real time. For example, if a child looks anxious or avoids eye contact with a sad character, the AI could gently slow down the story, provide encouraging prompts or reduce the emotional intensity of the scene. On the other hand, if the child appears calm and engaged, the AI might introduce a more complex scenario to deepen their learning.

In our current research, we are investigating how AI can measure empathy itself – tracking moment-to-moment emotional responses during gameplay to provide educators with better insight into how empathy develops.

Future work and collaboration

As promising as I believe this work is, it raises big questions. Should VR characters express emotions at full intensity, or should we tone them down for sensitive children? If children treat VR characters as real, how do we make sure those lessons carry to the playground or dinner table? And with headsets still costly, how do we ensure empathy technology doesn’t widen digital divides?

These are not just research puzzles but ethical responsibilities. This vision requires collaboration among educators, researchers, designers, parents and children themselves. Computer scientists design the technology, psychologists ensure the experiences are emotionally healthy, teachers adapt them for curriculum, and children co-create the games to make them engaging and meaningful.

Together, we can shape technologies that not only entertain but also nurture empathy, emotional regulation and deeper connection in the next generation.

The Conversation

Ekaterina Muravevskaia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How VR and AI could help the next generation grow kinder and more connected – https://theconversation.com/how-vr-and-ai-could-help-the-next-generation-grow-kinder-and-more-connected-263181