En Iran, la République islamique, le Bazar et la Mosquée : un ménage à trois impossible ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Djamchid Assadi, Professeur associé au département « Digital Management », Burgundy School of Business

Longtemps, les milieux d’affaires et religieux ont été, les uns comme les autres, des piliers du système iranien. Mais dès les années 1940, le clergé se politise et prend de plus en plus d’importance. L’avènement de la République islamique en 1979 entérine et accélère nettement ce processus : la Mosquée prend alors le pas sur le Bazar, réduit à un rôle subalterne. La défection observée dernièrement du Bazar vis-à-vis du pouvoir s’explique par des éléments conjoncturels ; mais, structurellement, elle était en germe depuis des décennies.


Pourquoi un allié historique, longtemps pilier d’un régime autoritaire, s’en désiste-t-il et contribue-t-il à sa fragilisation, voire à sa chute ?

Depuis Tocqueville jusqu’aux travaux contemporains sur les « piliers du pouvoir », une constante traverse l’histoire politique moderne : la stabilité d’un régime dépend moins de l’adhésion diffuse des foules que de l’obéissance de ses corps intermédiaires organisés. Lorsque ces soutiens cessent d’obéir, le pouvoir entre dans une zone de vulnérabilité structurelle.

Ce mécanisme s’observe dans des contextes variés, comme la rupture des forces armées portugaises avec le régime de Caetano en 1974, le désengagement des élites franquistes après 1975 : le basculement ne procède pas d’une mobilisation populaire isolée, mais de la désolidarisation d’acteurs institutionnels jusque-là intégrés à l’ordre autoritaire.

Le Grand Bazar de Téhéran illustre précisément ce mécanisme. Sa fermeture lors du soulèvement de janvier 2026 ne constitue ni l’origine ni le moteur principal de la contestation, mais son symptôme institutionnel le plus lisible. Elle signale le retrait d’un acteur longtemps arrimé à la jurisprudence religieuse – moins par conviction que parce qu’elle offrait un cadre normatif stable à ses échanges économiques. Si le mouvement iranien est national, porté par des groupes sociaux, professionnels et générationnels multiples, chacun mû par des motifs distincts, le désistement du bazar conserve une singularité claire : celle d’un acteur qui cesse d’assurer sa fonction d’amortisseur institutionnel entre société et pouvoir.

Pour en saisir la portée, il faut revenir à la mutualité séculaire entre le Bazar et la Mosquée. Cette relation ne reposait ni sur une fusion idéologique ni sur une subordination politique, mais sur une complémentarité fonctionnelle : le religieux garantissait les normes et arbitrages assurant la prévisibilité des échanges ; le marchand finançait le clergé et garantissait son indépendance vis-à-vis du pouvoir central. Cette autonomie réciproque constituait l’un des fondements de la stabilité sociale iranienne.

La révolution islamique de 1979 rompt cet équilibre. En assujettissant la Mosquée pour monopoliser le sacré, le nouveau pouvoir transforme une institution autonome en instrument de règne. La relation cesse d’être horizontale et devient médiatisée par un État idéologique. La grève de janvier 2026 ne peut donc être réduite à une réaction conjoncturelle à la cherté de la vie – même si celle-ci joue un rôle déclencheur. Elle révèle une rupture plus profonde, inscrite dans la longue durée, née de la transformation du rapport entre religion, économie et pouvoir depuis 1979.

Le Bazar et la Mosquée : une relation ancienne, fonctionnelle et non fusionnelle

La relation séculaire entre le Bazar et la Mosquée repose sur une division fonctionnelle du travail social. Avant toute politisation du clergé, cette relation est avant tout professionnelle. La jurisprudence islamique chiite (fiqh) agit depuis toujours, surtout depuis la dynastie des Safavides (1501-1722), comme un véritable « code de commerce » : elle encadre les contrats, arbitre les litiges et garantit la sécurité des échanges (Lambton, 1969). La Mosquée fonctionne ainsi comme un tiers de confiance indépendant, extérieur à l’État, assurant la prévisibilité de l’ordre marchand.

Les travaux empiriques de Keshavarzian (2009) confirment que cette relation repose sur des réseaux horizontaux de confiance et de coordination sociale, produits en dehors des structures étatiques, et non sur une loyauté idéologique. L’islam chiite non politisé valorise historiquement l’activité marchande, faisant du commerce une pratique socialement légitime et moralement encadrée. Cette alliance économico-religieuse constitue un fait sociologique structurant de longue durée (Abrahamian, 1982), dans lequel la religion ne gouverne pas l’économie mais en stabilise les règles.

Cette mutualité s’exprime politiquement dès le XIXe siècle. Lors de la crise du tabac (1891–1892), Bazar et Mosquée s’unissent contre une concession accordée par le pouvoir. La révolte du tabac, déclenchée en 1891 sous le règne de Nasser al-Din Chah, était une protestation massive contre la concession accordée par le gouvernement iranien à un ressortissant britannique pour le monopole du tabac. Cette mesure, perçue comme une violation de l’intérêt national et une intrusion étrangère, a été fortement dénoncée par le clergé chiite et les intellectuels, marquant un tournant dans la mobilisation politique moderne de l’Iran. Cette opposition ciblée à l’arbitraire étatique – plutôt qu’un projet théocratique (Keddie, 1966) – a jeté les bases d’un mouvement nationaliste sans ambitions politiques religieuses qui changera de cap plus tard pour soutenir la Révolution iranienne de 1979.

Le même schéma se retrouve durant la Révolution constitutionnelle (1905–1911), lorsque les grands commerçants financent les bast (sit-in de protestation) et les hijrat (exils protestataires, consistant généralement à quitter une ville pour exercer une pression politique) afin de soutenir l’instauration d’une mashrouteh – un État constitutionnel limitant le pouvoir monarchique, non un État islamique (Afary, 1996).

Le grand bazar de Téhéran en 1907.
Wikimedia

La modernisation des années 1920–1930 ne rompt pas immédiatement cet équilibre. Reza Shah (fondateur de la monarchie Pahlavi, à la tête du pays de 1925 à 1941) transforme progressivement le droit commercial religieux en droit civil, en extrayant les principes juridiques modernes du fiqh sans rupture frontale avec les institutions religieuses (Banani, 1961). Les sphères demeurent distinctes : le Bazar conserve sa fonction économique, la Mosquée son rôle normatif et social.

C’est précisément cette architecture fonctionnelle, fondée sur la séparation des rôles et l’autonomie réciproque, qui commence à se fissurer à partir des années 1940, et plus encore dans les années 1960, lorsqu’une partie du clergé se politise et remet en cause sa fonction traditionnelle de médiation.

L’émergence du clergé radical et la politisation de la mosquée

La politisation de la Mosquée marque une rupture décisive dans l’histoire des relations entre religion, commerce et pouvoir en Iran. Elle met fin à la fonction du clergé comme tiers normatif indépendant et ouvre la voie à une instrumentalisation politique du religieux. Deux figures structurent ce basculement.

La première est Navab Safavi (1924–1956), fondateur des Fadaian·e Islam (« les Sacrifiés de l’islam » ou « les Fidèles prêts au sacrifice pour l’islam »). En prônant l’application coercitive de la charia et en légitimant l’assassinat politique, Navab Safai rompt avec le rôle historique du clergé chiite comme arbitre moral et juridique. Bien que marginal et rapidement réprimé, ce courant inaugure une conception militante et autoritaire du religieux, qui influencera durablement l’islamisme politique iranien (Rahnema, 1998).

La deuxième figure, l’ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, procède à une rupture structurelle. À partir de 1963, son opposition aux réformes de la « Révolution blanche » (un vaste programme de modernisation lancé par Mohammad Reza Chah, comprenant la réforme agraire, l’alphabétisation de masse, l’émancipation juridique des femmes, etc.) transforme la Mosquée en acteur politique central. Le clergé cesse alors d’être un garant des normes sociales et économiques ; il devient un instrument de mobilisation politique, puis, après 1979, un pilier constitutif de l’État idéologique.

Cette politisation rencontre un écho auprès d’une fraction du bazar dans un contexte de transformation rapide de l’économie iranienne. Durant les années 1960, la croissance atteint en moyenne 9 à 10 % par an, portée par la substitution des importations et l’industrialisation (Amuzegar, 1977). Ce processus marginalise les bazaris spécialisés dans le commerce extérieur, alimentant un mécontentement économique qui se mue en radicalisation politique partielle.

C’est dans ce contexte qu’émerge le Motalefeh (Parti de la coalition islamique), réseau de bazaris islamisés, qui joue un rôle clé dans la mobilisation révolutionnaire de 1978–1979 (Bakhash, 1984). Toutefois, cette alliance ne traduit pas un ralliement durable du bazar comme corps social. Le Motalefeh se transforme rapidement en élite intégrée à l’appareil d’État, utilisant son identité bazari pour administrer et contrôler le bazar plutôt que pour le représenter.

La politisation du religieux désorganise ainsi les réseaux traditionnels. La confiance horizontale fondée sur le fiqh est remplacée par une loyauté idéologique surveillée, médiatisée par l’État. En sortant la religion du domaine de la croyance volontaire et de la médiation sociale, le régime affaiblit sa capacité à structurer durablement les relations économiques, préparant les conditions du désistement ultérieur du bazar.

Les limites de l’État rentier clientéliste (1979–2026)

Le régime islamique issu de la révolution de 1979 opère une double transformation structurante. D’une part, il place le clergé et la mosquée sous l’autorité du velayat·e faqih – le principe de « tutelle du juriste‑théologien », qui confère au guide suprême un pouvoir politique et religieux supérieur à toutes les autres institutions ; d’autre part, il étatiste une large part du secteur privé, redistribuant entreprises, licences et monopoles d’import-export à ses fidèles. Les frères Asgaroladi incarnent ce capitalisme de connivence adossé à l’État révolutionnaire. Issus du bazar traditionnel, ils deviennent des hommes d’affaires ultra‑puissants grâce à leur proximité avec le régime, obtenant monopoles, licences et positions clés dans les fondations para‑étatiques – une illustration emblématique du capitalisme de connivence né après 1979.

Cette mutation rompt l’équilibre historique : la Mosquée perd son autonomie institutionnelle, tandis que le Bazar devient un bénéficiaire rentier dépendant de l’État. Tant que la rente pétrolière permet de financer ce clientélisme, le système fonctionne de manière précaire mais durable.

Toutefois, ce modèle ne repose jamais sur une représentation collective du Bazar. Le régime privilégie des relations personnelles et sélectives, substituant au profit marchand l’accès à des licences d’importation. Ce mécanisme devient fatal lorsque les sanctions internationales privent l’État de devises. Exclu des circuits financiers internationaux, le régime perd son principal levier de contrôle économique.

L’économie entre alors dans une spirale inflationniste : inflation supérieure à 42 %, effondrement du rial, chute rapide du pouvoir d’achat. Pour les bazaris, dont l’activité repose sur l’anticipation, cette instabilité rend le calcul économique impossible. Comme l’avait montré Hayek (1945), la désorganisation du système des prix détruit la rationalité des décisions économiques.

Cette crise s’accompagne d’une fragmentation institutionnelle entretenue : division des chambres de commerce, bureaucratisation du clergé, marginalisation des mosquées comme instances d’arbitrage. La rupture de janvier 2026 résulte ainsi d’une double faillite : celle d’un État rentier incapable de tenir ses promesses, et celle d’une Mosquée assujettie ayant cessé de jouer son rôle historique.

Le désistement des alliés stratégiques

Le cas iranien montre que le désistement d’un allié stratégique ne relève ni d’un sursaut moral ni d’une rupture idéologique soudaine, mais de l’effondrement progressif des mécanismes institutionnels qui rendaient l’obéissance rationnelle.

En janvier 2026, le Grand Bazar ne se retire pas seulement d’un État en crise économique. Il se désengage d’un ordre politique qui a détruit les conditions mêmes de la loyauté. En assujettissant la Mosquée, la République islamique a rompu la mutualité fonctionnelle entre religion et économie, privant le bazar des cadres normatifs stables indispensables à son activité.

Ce désistement ne traduit pas un rejet de la foi, mais le refus d’une religion devenue autoritaire, bureaucratisée et imprévisible. En neutralisant les corps intermédiaires qui assuraient la coordination sociale, l’État a remplacé la confiance horizontale par une loyauté contrainte, tolérée tant qu’elle restait matériellement soutenable.

Comme l’avait montré Raymond Aron, un régime autoritaire devient vulnérable lorsqu’il perd l’obéissance de ses soutiens structurants. Le désistement du Bazar révèle ainsi une fragilisation systémique. Lorsque l’État détruit simultanément la prévisibilité économique et les institutions sociales qui rendaient l’obéissance rationnelle, il ouvre une zone d’incertitude historique dont l’issue dépend moins de la rue que de la capacité – ou non – à reconstruire une alternative institutionnelle crédible.

The Conversation

Djamchid Assadi ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. En Iran, la République islamique, le Bazar et la Mosquée : un ménage à trois impossible ? – https://theconversation.com/en-iran-la-republique-islamique-le-bazar-et-la-mosquee-un-menage-a-trois-impossible-273935

Face aux attaques contre la science, l’importance d’inscrire la liberté académique dans la Constitution belge

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Édouard Delruelle, Professeur de Philosophie politique, Université de Liège

Dans le cadre de notre émission consacrée à la défense de la liberté académique, diffusée vendredi 23 janvier, nous publions cet article initialement paru dans le Quinzième jour, le quadrimestriel de l’Université de Liège. Édouard Delruelle y développe un plaidoyer en faveur de l’inscription de la liberté académique dans la Constitution belge comme une étape pour ouvrir un débat démocratique sur le sujet.


En septembre dernier, l’Université de Berkeley, temple historique de la liberté de pensée, a accepté de livrer à l’administration Trump une liste d’étudiants et de professeurs suspectés d’« antisémitisme » en raison de leur engagement en faveur de la cause palestinienne.

Dans cette liste figure la philosophe Judith Butler, docteure honoris causa de l’université de Liège. Qui aurait imaginé, il y a un an à peine, que les universités les plus performantes et les plus prestigieuses au monde seraient l’objet d’attaques aussi violentes de la part du pouvoir politique, et qu’elles céderaient si prestement à ses intimidations et injonctions ? Que des programmes de recherche essentiels pour l’avenir de l’humanité dans les domaines de la santé ou du climat seraient démantelés ? Que les chercheurs en sciences humaines et sociales devraient bannir de leur vocabulaire des termes tels que diversité, égalité, inclusion ?

En Belgique, des coupes et des inquiétudes

Pourtant, nous avions tort de penser que ces atteintes brutales à la liberté académique ne pouvaient avoir cours que dans les régimes autoritaires. Cela fait plusieurs années que l’Academic Freedom Index enregistre une dégradation de la liberté académique en Europe. Intrusion du management dans la gouvernance universitaire, culture de la « post-vérité » sur les réseaux sociaux, ciblage d’intellectuels critiques par l’extrême droite, stigmatisation d’un prétendu « wokisme » que propageraient les études de genre, décoloniales ou LGBTQIA+ : ces offensives ne sont pas neuves, et elles touchent aussi la Belgique.

Mais un coup d’accélérateur a indéniablement été donné en 2025, avec les coupes budgétaires dans la recherche décidées par le gouvernement de la Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, une réforme drastique des retraites des Académiques, avant d’autres mesures annoncées sur le précompte chercheur ou le statut de fonctionnaire. Les mouvements Stand Up for Science au niveau mondial, ou « Université en Colère » chez nous, témoignent de l’inquiétude de la communauté universitaire face aux menaces qui pèsent sur la liberté académique.

De nombreuses menaces

Ces menaces sont multiples. On peut schématiquement en identifier quatre :

  1. les menaces politiques provenant de gouvernements et de mouvements politiques déterminés à contrôler idéologiquement la production et la diffusion des connaissances ;

  2. celles que font peser sur la science la logique économique de marché
    – rentabilité, compétitivité, privatisation de la recherche, avec comme conséquences, entre autres, la précarisation grandissante des chercheurs et le découplage de l’excellence scientifique et de la liberté académique ;

  3. l’emprise des technologies du numérique et leur l’impact sur la propriété intellectuelle, l’autonomie pédagogique, l’esprit critique ou la créativité (fake news, IA mobilisée à des fins de propagande, intrusion des réseaux sociaux dans les débats académiques, etc.) ;

  4. la propagation d’un « sciento-populisme » au sein d’une opinion publique de plus en plus polarisée et critique à l’égard des élites (intellectuelles, judiciaires, journalistiques, etc.).

Ces menaces se conjuguent le plus souvent : la censure politique d’un Trump s’exerce par la pression économique, la Tech numérique délégitime la science auprès des internautes, les impératifs financiers justifient la mise au ban des savoirs critiques. Aucun domaine de recherche n’est épargné : les sciences humaines et sociales sont attaquées en raison de leur prétendue dangerosité idéologique ou de leur inutilité économique présumée mais les STEM (sciences, technologie, ingénierie, mathématiques) sont aussi menacées d’être instrumentalisées comme simples vecteurs de puissance géopolitique, comme c’est déjà le cas en Russie ou en Chine.

La recherche en plein « warscape »

La recherche scientifique évolue dorénavant dans un « warscape », c’est-à-dire un espace traversé par la violence politique, sociale et économique, et où les rapports de pouvoir et de savoir sont complètement reconfigurés. Trois modalités de ces rapports se dégagent :

  1. la guerre contre la science menée par ceux qui veulent la destruction de l’autonomie des universités et de la libre recherche (en même temps que celle de la démocratie) ;

  2. la guerre dans la science, du fait des fractures au sein de la communauté universitaire elle-même autour de questions controversées telles que le colonialisme, le conflit israélo-palestinien, le transgenrisme, etc. ;

  3. la science face à la guerre, qui soulève la question des collaborations « à risques », notamment avec l’industrie de l’armement ou avec des partenaires internationaux potentiellement impliqués dans des violations du droit humanitaire – question très polarisante, comme l’a montré à l’ULiège la polémique autour de la chaire Thalès.

Une culture citoyenne

C’est dans cette perspective que la liberté académique, j’en suis convaincu, doit être défendue et protégée, non par corporatisme, mais parce qu’elle est la condition de tout développement scientifique comme de tout État de droit et de toute démocratie.

Telle est aussi la conclusion du remarquable rapport publié récemment par Sophie Balme pour France Universités, qui propose une “stratégie globale” de renforcement de la liberté académique en 65 propositions. Comment créer une véritable culture professionnelle, politique et surtout citoyenne autour de la liberté de recherche et d’enseignement ? Une culture citoyenne surtout, car l’une des raisons pour lesquelles Trump peut attaquer si brutalement les universités est l’hostilité d’une grande partie de l’opinion publique américaine à l’égard d’un monde universitaire jugé arrogant, coupé des réalités et entretenant un système de reproduction sociale financièrement inaccessible au plus grand nombre. Nous devons éviter de nous retrouver dans cette situation.

La première des 65 propositions de Sophie Balme est d’inscrire la liberté académique dans la Constitution française. Pourquoi pas aussi en Belgique, qui suivrait ainsi l’exemple de l’Italie ou de l’Allemagne (dont on sait quelles tragédies historiques ont été à l’origine de leurs constitutions d’après-guerre) ? Ouvrons le débat.

Ouvrir un débat démocratique

Certains constitutionnalistes objecteront que si la liberté académique ne figure pas formellement dans le texte constitutionnel, elle est néanmoins explicitement reconnue par la jurisprudence de la Cour constitutionnelle et de la Cour européenne des droits de l’Homme, et qu’elle est en outre consacrée par la Charte des droits fondamentaux de l’Union européenne, un texte qui est au sommet de la pyramide normative et d’application directe dans notre droit national. D’un point de vue juridique, ma proposition serait comme un coup d’épée dans l’eau. On répondra toutefois que presque toutes les libertés fondamentales sont dupliquées aux deux niveaux normatifs, européen et national, ce qui renforce leur effectivité juridique et leur portée symbolique.

Mais surtout, le processus politique de révision de la Constitution qu’il faudra parcourir serait l’occasion d’une large mobilisation du monde académique et, espérons-le, de la société civile, et d’un débat démocratique autour de la liberté de recherche et d’enseignement. Ce débat obligerait les partis politiques à se positionner et à en tirer les conséquences sur les plans programmatique et législatif. Et il représenterait une belle opportunité de solidarité et d’échange entre acteurs et actrices de la recherche au nord et au sud du pays.

Une liberté spécifique et complexe

Ce débat serait surtout l’occasion de s’interroger sur la spécificité et la complexité de la liberté académique. Spécificité par rapport à la liberté d’expression, dont jouit tout citoyen et qui l’autorise à dire ce qu’il veut (hors des atteintes à la loi), y compris des choses idiotes et insignifiantes – ce dont un grand nombre ne se prive pas. Tandis que la liberté académique est un outil au service d’une finalité qui dépasse son bénéficiaire : la recherche de la vérité sans contraintes (une belle définition du philosophe Paul Ricœur sa « Préface » à Conceptions de l’université de J. Drèze et J. Debelle. Une finalité qui nous impose des devoirs (à commencer par celui de nous soumettre au jugement de nos pairs).

Complexité ensuite de la liberté académique, qui est multidimensionnelle, comme en témoignent les cinq critères utilisés par l’Academic Freedom Index : la liberté de recherche et d’enseignement, la liberté de collaborer, d’échanger et de diffuser les données et les connaissances, l’autonomie institutionnelle des universités, l’intégrité du campus à l’égard des forces de l’ordre mais aussi des groupes militants violents et enfin la liberté d’expression académique et culturelle, y compris sur des questions politiques ou sociétales.

De vrais enjeux se posent quant aux limites de chacune de ces libertés, et aux tensions qui peuvent exister entre elles, en particulier entre la liberté académique individuelle et l’autonomie des universités. Car pour garantir celle-là, celles-ci ne doivent-elles pas s’astreindre à une certaine « réserve institutionnelle » (un terme plus approprié que « neutralité ») sur les questions politiques ? Je le crois ; mais cette « réserve » est-elle encore de mise face à des violations caractérisées du droit international et du droit humanitaire ? C’est toute la complexité du débat autour des collaborations avec les universités israéliennes…

Résistance, nuance, responsabilité

Comment faire de nos universités des espaces à la fois ouverts sur le monde et préservés de la violence qu’il engendre ? Des espaces de résistance à l’obscurantisme abyssal qui gangrène nos sociétés, de nuance contre les simplismes idéologiques, de responsabilité à l’égard des immenses défis environnementaux, sociaux, géopolitiques dont dépend l’avenir de l’humanité ? Ce qui arrive aujourd’hui au monde de la recherche doit faire réfléchir chacun d’entre nous sur son ethos académique, sur le mode de subjectivation qu’implique un exercice sans réserve mais responsable de la liberté académique. Mais cette réflexion doit aussi être collective, autour d’un objectif mobilisateur. C’est ce que je propose.

La liberté académique dans la Constitution, ce n’est donc pas figer dans le marbre une vérité révélée, mais au contraire ouvrir le débat sur une liberté essentielle mais menacée, qui regarde tant les acteurs de la recherche que les citoyens qui en sont les destinataires finaux. Ce n’est pas non plus cantonner le débat au niveau belge, mais créer l’opportunité d’un mouvement à l’échelon européen, afin que la recherche y préserve son autonomie à l’heure où, en Chine et aux États-Unis (et ailleurs), elle est désormais sous contrôle politique. Sophie Balme propose ici aussi des pistes d’action pour l’Union européenne, en termes d’investissements mais aussi d’outils concrets de mesure et de promotion de la liberté académique. Et bien sûr, nous devons continuer à manifester notre solidarité envers les chercheurs inquiétés ou opprimés partout dans le monde.

Pour atteindre ces objectifs, je suggère une double stratégie, par « en haut » et par « en bas ». D’un côté, un engagement des rectrices et des recteurs du nord et du sud (via le CREF – Conseil des rectrices et recteurs francophones – et le VLIR – Vlaamse interuniversitaire raad), en nouant aussi des alliances par-delà les frontières. L’ULiège pourrait être le moteur d’un tel engagement, par la voix de la rectrice Anne-Sophie Nyssen. De l’autre côté, une mobilisation de nous tous, acteurs et actrices de la recherche, envers le monde politique et la société civile – une mobilisation qui prendrait la forme de pétitions, de colloques, de forums, mais aussi de production de savoirs qui manquent cruellement dans le domaine francophone (Notons malgré tout l’Observatoire des atteintes à la liberté académique).

En tous cas, il est grand temps d’agir si nous ne voulons pas plier demain, à notre tour, devant les apprentis Trump qui pullulent autour de nous.

The Conversation

Édouard Delruelle a reçu des financements du FNRS (Belgique) et de l’Université de Liège

ref. Face aux attaques contre la science, l’importance d’inscrire la liberté académique dans la Constitution belge – https://theconversation.com/face-aux-attaques-contre-la-science-limportance-dinscrire-la-liberte-academique-dans-la-constitution-belge-273947

L’aide au développement sert aussi à sécuriser les chaînes d’approvisionnement des pays riches

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Basak Bayramoglu, Directrice de recherche, Inrae

En théorie, le montant de l’aide au développement versé à tel ou tel pays ne devrait pas dépendre de sa contribution aux chaînes de valeur mondiales. Dans les faits, pourtant, on observe que les pays donateurs ont tendance à privilégier, quand ils aident financièrement des pays pauvres, ceux qui sont utiles à leur propre production…


Pourquoi certains pays reçoivent-ils davantage d’aide au développement que d’autres alors que leurs besoins sont comparables ? Les chercheurs s’interrogent sur cette question depuis des décennies. Nous savons déjà que les motivations des donateurs ne sont pas uniquement altruistes : elles incluent des considérations diplomatiques ou commerciales par exemple.

Dans un article récent, nous montrons que les chaînes de valeur mondiales — ces réseaux internationaux où les biens sont produits en plusieurs étapes dans différents pays — créent de nouvelles interdépendances entre pays et influencent l’allocation de l’aide.

Aide au développement bien ordonnée…

Depuis les années 1990, la production mondiale s’est largement fragmentée : composants électroniques, pièces automobiles, produits agricoles transformés… une multitude d’étapes de production sont désormais dispersées entre plusieurs pays. Les échanges liés à cette organisation de la production mondiale en chaînes de valeur représentent environ 50 % du commerce mondial.

Notre analyse empirique montre que les pays donateurs accordent davantage d’aide aux pays qui fournissent des biens intermédiaires utilisés dans leur production destinée à l’exportation. Autrement dit, l’aide n’est pas uniquement destinée aux pays dont les besoins sont les plus importants : elle se dirige aussi vers ceux qui occupent des positions clés dans les chaînes de valeur mondiales.

Les exportations des pays récipiendaires de l’aide jouent un rôle particulièrement important dans les secteurs caractérisés par des biens intermédiaires différenciés, difficiles à substituer : équipements électriques et machines, transport et pièces automobiles, industrie agroalimentaire. Les pays produisant ce type de biens reçoivent davantage d’aide, toutes choses égales par ailleurs. Ce résultat complète d’autres recherches montrant que les réserves en pétrole des pays récipiendaires influencent également l’allocation de l’aide.

Le poids des entreprises des pays donateurs

Nous observons aussi une hétérogénéité importante entre pays donateurs déjà mise en avant dans d’autres travaux : les grands pays exportateurs (France, Allemagne, Japon, Royaume-Uni, États-Unis, notamment) semblent allouer l’aide de manière plus stratégique, tandis que les pays considérés traditionnellement comme plus « altruistes » (Pays-Bas, Danemark, Suède…) semblent moins sensibles au fait que le pays récipiendaire soit exportateur de biens intermédiaires spécifiques.

Calculs des auteurs. Ce graphique représente l’effet de la valeur ajoutée provenant des biens intermédiaires des pays récipiendaires (Foreign Value Added, FVA) sur le montant d’aide bilatérale pour chaque pays donateur (moyennes et intervalles de confiance à 95 %). Cliquer pour zoomer.
Fourni par l’auteur

Pour comprendre ces résultats, nous proposons une explication théorique.

Le pays donateur, situé en aval de la chaîne de valeur, dépend d’un intrant produit dans un pays receveur, situé en amont. En transférant — sous forme d’aide — des ressources financières qui font l’objet de négociations, il incite le pays receveur à réduire ses tarifs douaniers d’importations de biens intermédiaires, ce qui diminue le coût final de son intrant produit et exporté vers le pays donateur.

L’aide agirait ainsi comme un levier discret de réduction des coûts de production pour les entreprises du pays donateur. L’influence des entreprises dans l’allocation de l’aide est également révélée ces dernières années par des enquêtes journalistiques.

Un processus qui creuse les inégalités entre pays pauvres

Ce travail montre que l’aide au développement apparaît, au moins en partie, comme un moyen permettant aux pays donateurs de garantir un accès à des biens intermédiaires stratégiques en soutenant les pays situés en amont des chaînes de production. Ce constat interroge la manière dont l’aide est allouée si l’on souhaite éviter que les pays les plus pauvres ne soient doublement exclus : des chaînes de valeur mondiales et des flux d’aide.

Nos résultats ont des implications politiques importantes.

Premièrement, le développement des chaînes de valeur mondiales peut exacerber la fragmentation de l’aide en concentrant les financements vers les pays déjà intégrés dans ces chaînes. Or, malgré plusieurs initiatives internationales comme la Déclaration de Paris sur l’efficacité de l’aide au développement adoptée par l’OCDE en 2005, cette fragmentation persiste. Une étude de la Banque mondiale montre que l’augmentation des engagements d’aide au développement en termes réels entre 2000 et 2019 s’est accompagnée d’une multiplication du nombre de donateurs et d’agences d’aide, rendant la coordination de l’allocation de l’aide plus complexe.

Deuxièmement, orienter prioritairement l’aide vers les pays liés aux chaînes de valeur mondiales peut nuire au développement des pays les moins avancés, dont l’intégration dans les réseaux de production mondiaux reste limitée. Or, l’intégration aux chaînes de valeur stimule la croissance : une étude de la Banque mondiale indique qu’une augmentation de 1 % de participation entraîne en moyenne plus de 1 % de hausse du revenu par habitant. Mais si l’aide se concentre sur les pays déjà bien intégrés, elle risque de creuser davantage l’écart entre les « gagnants » et les laissés-pour-compte de la mondialisation. Or, les déclarations récentes de l’administration américaine qui limiteraient l’aide au développement à 17 pays prioritaires choisis par les États-Unis (« excluant certains pays en proie à de graves crises humanitaires, tels que l’Afghanistan et le Yémen ») ne font que renforcer ces inquiétudes.

The Conversation

Basak Bayramoglu est membre de la Chaire Énergie et Prospérité, sous l’égide de La Fondation du Risque.

Jean-François Jacques et Julie Lochard ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur poste universitaire.

ref. L’aide au développement sert aussi à sécuriser les chaînes d’approvisionnement des pays riches – https://theconversation.com/laide-au-developpement-sert-aussi-a-securiser-les-chaines-dapprovisionnement-des-pays-riches-272391

A government can choose to investigate the killing of a protester − or choose to blame the victim and pin it all on ‘domestic terrorism’

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Stephanie A. (Sam) Martin, Frank and Bethine Church Endowed Chair of Public Affairs, Boise State University

Has it become perilous to exercise free speech in the U.S.? nadia_bormotova/iStock Getty Images

The question the First Amendment keeps asking, across wars and panics and moral crusades, is whether a democracy can tolerate the possibility of persuasion.

There’s a certain school of thought that says no. Persuasion is too perilous.

I call this way of thinking “swallow-a-fly logic.” I’m referring, of course, to the popular children’s song where a woman ingests a fly and then keeps devouring bigger animals to fix it, until she dies from eating a horse.

It leads to the “old lady who swallowed a fly” theory of obedience: If we let someone with a message we don’t like speak out, people might be persuaded. If people become persuaded, they might stop supporting the war, the president, the government, itself. If support evaporates, enlistment drops or compliance weakens as the state loses leverage. If enlistment drops, the government might fall. And if there is no government, then who cares about the First Amendment?

By this way of thinking, free speech is dangerous because the public is too influence-able, and influence is too unpredictable, and security is too precious.

The constitutional tradition of free speech, when it is working at its best, says yes anyway, go ahead and speak. The alternative is a politics in which the state survives by making dissenters illegitimate as citizens.

That’s what happened to Renée Good when she was shot and killed by ICE in Minneapolis on Jan. 7, 2026. Her resistance had made her menacing.

A crowd of protesters on a city corner in the night.
People gather on Jan. 8, 2026, for a protest of the killing of Renee Nicole Good in Minneapolis, Minn.
Stephen Maturen/Getty Images

Dissent as a virus

I’m a professor of public service and vice chair of the National Communication Association’s Communication and Law Division. My research examines how news institutions shape civic life and how freedom of expression is both a fundamental human right and a fundamental part of democracy.

In modern First Amendment doctrine, the government usually cannot punish speech unless it crosses narrow lines like incitement.

But when national security is invoked, the rules for speech appear to change. Dissent is treated less as persuasion to be debated and more like a virus to be contained before it harms public morale. That containment logic, either overt or covert, has repeatedly reappeared whenever protest has become politically inconvenient and unpalatable to those in power. It’s the kind of thinking that led to Jimmy Kimmel’s suspension from “Jimmy Kimmel Live!” after poking fun at President Donald Trump.

A terror memo. A protest. A killing.

National Security Presidential Memorandum 7, issued by the Trump administration in September 2025, relies on logic from the lady and the fly. It frames “domestic terrorism” and “organized political violence” as national security crises. It tells federal agencies to work together to investigate and stop suspected threats, a framework that enlarges the set of things the state can plausibly treat as suspect, including the freedoms of association and belief.

The language in the memorandum affirms legitimate counterterrorism work while leaving room to treat political dissent as out of bounds. But the First Amendment protects protest speech.

Still, if the language of the Trump memo is somewhat abstract, Minneapolis has provided a brutally concrete example.

When an ICE agent shot and killed Good, a 37-year-old U.S. citizen, federal officials characterized the encounter as an act of self-defense by an agent afraid of being run down by Good in her car.

Local authorities have disputed that framing.

The incident was captured on video that widely circulated and intensified public scrutiny. According to Good’s wife, the couple were protesters who confronted heavily armed agents determined to scare them away. No one tried to run anyone over, she said.

Amid this controversy, the story took a sharp turn. Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem said Good appeared to have been committing “an act of domestic terrorism.” Trump called Good “very violent” and “very radical.”

Reports claim that Department of Justice leadership pushed federal prosecutors to investigate Good’s widow, even as the department declined to open a civil rights probe into the shooting itself.

At least six federal prosecutors in the Minneapolis U.S. attorney’s office resigned in response.

Soon after Renée Good was killed by an ICE officer, DHS Sec. Kristi Noem claimed that Good had committed “domestic terrorism.”

Turning victims into suspects

The state has two choices when a death occurs that’s politically dangerous to the government.

It can investigate the killing with transparency and center the victim’s rights alongside public accountability as organizing principles. Or it can treat the killing as an opportunity to put the victim on trial in the court of public legitimacy.

The second choice avoids holding government accountable, shifts conversation toward the target’s supposed behavior and character, and expands the blame to include the people who loved and stood with the dead.

When this happens, the government does not have to win in court. It only has to keep the stigma circulating by asserting that a particular speaker undermines respect for elected officials. Indeed, that’s one of the reasons Trump offered for Good’s shooting by the ICE officer: “At a very minimum, that woman was very, very disrespectful to law enforcement,” he told reporters.

The United States has been here before. Around EG: During? World War I, the U.S. Supreme Court issued several free speech decisions in cases mostly remembered as disputes over protest and draft resistance. But their underlying engine was the swallow-a-fly theory. Opposing the war might ruin the nation, so political dissidents had to be stopped, and the court affirmed the government’s right to silence strident speakers.

The Cold War era sharpened the same approach but made it about identity. The Smith Act, passed in 1940, curbed speech that advocated the violent overthrow of the government. In practice, Smith Act cases treated any type of communist sympathy as illegal, presumptively falling outside democratic tolerance.

The government did not have to prove a threat was real and required response. Instead, it had to show that certain ideas were too dangerous to be part of open conversation.

Finally, in Brandenburg v. Ohio from 1969, the Supreme Court went in the opposite direction, affirming free speech rights even for those advocating vile ideas.

The justices overturned the conviction of a Ku Klux Klan leader and held that the government cannot punish advocacy just because it is extreme, hateful or possibly perilous. Only speech “directed at inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action” may be quelched, the court wrote. The danger has to be real, and it has to be happening right now. Otherwise, citizens are free to say what they will.

New ways to chill speech

So, if the Supreme Court has settled the issue, why does it feel alive again now?

Contemporary crackdowns rarely present themselves as crackdowns. They present themselves as “coordination,” “threat assessment,” “financial disruption,” “extremism prevention” and, increasingly, as necessary defenses against “domestic terrorism.”

The Trump administration’s September 2025 national security memorandum is exactly the kind of framework that makes these routes attractive, because it invites the state to treat political conflict not as disagreement but as a security threat – something to be managed by the tools and instincts of national security.

Seen in this light, the resignations of federal government attorneys in Minneapolis are not just a bureaucratic drama. They are a window into the government’s underlying theory of the case. Investigate victims and their associates instead of scrutinizing the state’s use of force. Frame the victim’s death as the inevitable consequence of being their type. As Trump said of Good: She was a “professional agitator.”

Minneapolis is not just a tragedy. It is a test of whether the country still backs the central promise of modern free speech doctrine. Government may not suppress speech and association simply because it fears what the public might come to believe.

The Conversation

Stephanie A. (Sam) Martin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. A government can choose to investigate the killing of a protester − or choose to blame the victim and pin it all on ‘domestic terrorism’ – https://theconversation.com/a-government-can-choose-to-investigate-the-killing-of-a-protester-or-choose-to-blame-the-victim-and-pin-it-all-on-domestic-terrorism-273434

Colonial tax records hold 3 lessons for South Africa today – economic historian

Source: The Conversation – Africa – By Johan Fourie, Professor, Department of Economics, Stellenbosch University

In 1825, a tax collector compiling a census in South Africa’s Cape Colony paused to write a poem in the margin of his work. In it, he complained about the idle chatter of townsmen in Stellenbosch and uncooperative taxpayers. It is a tiny window on the regular frustrations of a 19th-century taxman. But the poem survives only because the bureaucracy did.

Year after year, from the 1660s to the 1840s, local officials appointed by the Dutch East India Company and, after 1806, the British colonial government, recorded settler households, their harvests and their labour obligations in ledgers known as opgaafrolle (tax censuses). Read closely, these records provide fleeting glimpses of lived experience; taken together, they allow us to trace long-term social and economic dynamics.

We often treat the past as distant. But the 18th-century Cape Colony also serves as an experiment for current-day economic historians in state capacity, market trust and inequality. Those themes remain central to South Africa today, and to the experience of many African economies shaped by colonial institutions.

Over the past year, my team and I at the Laboratory for the Economics of Africa’s Past at Stellenbosch University have published three studies that return to the Cape’s archival record with new data and new methods. Together, they suggest three lessons that still resonate: the non-neutrality of administrative data; how markets are social as well as economic institutions; and how inequality endures.

1. Data is never neutral

The opgaafrolle were fiscal instruments, introduced under Dutch East India Company rule in the second half of the 17th century and maintained under Batavian and British administrations in the early 19th century. Their purpose was straightforward: to record who lived where, what they owned, what they produced and what could be taxed.

In a paper co-authored with colleagues and students, we analyse the complete series of tax censuses for Stellenbosch and Drakenstein, two of the earliest and wealthiest districts of the Colony, close to Cape Town, between 1685 and 1844. These records allow us to trace kinship networks, marriage patterns, changes in agricultural output and the evolution of slave ownership over nearly 160 years.

The Cape was a slave economy. Enslaved people, brought from territories across the Indian Ocean, were recorded as assets in settler households. Indigenous Khoesan people are not included in these records, although there is little doubt that they, too, worked on settler farms. They are traced in later records.

For this study, we simply wanted to know what these detailed records, unique for their time, revealed about life at the Cape. We found they could be used to understand not only the economy, but also social life. For example, surnames showed marriage patterns that preserved wealth within the family.

The broader lesson is that data – in this case, administrative data – is never neutral. Some things are never recorded, like the Khoesan workers on farms. And when things are recorded, they can easily be biased, for a variety of reasons. Cape farmers underreported production to reduce their tax burden, for example. Enslaved people, by contrast, were recorded with far greater consistency in the censuses, partly because “owners” were not required to pay a slave tax.

Any serious engagement with administrative data, past or present, therefore requires attention to incentives and institutions. This is particularly important as South Africa today debates policy using census and administrative data whose limitations are often poorly understood. There are real consequences for planning and accountability.

2. Markets are social institutions before they are economic ones

Tax records tell us what households declared about their productive activities. To understand more about their consumption, we need different sources.

In another paper, we turn to the Cape Orphan Chamber’s auction records. These auctions were held when estates were liquidated, often after a death, and they recorded who bought what, at what price, and from whom. The dataset covers the period from 1701 to 1825 and has recently been fully transcribed.

What emerges is a picture of markets embedded in social relationships. Auctions were public events. Family members often bid on household goods to keep them within the family or to support widows and children. Credit – borrowing to invest in new tools or to acquire enslaved people – flowed along kinship lines. Consumption – buying an ox, or a wagon, or a Bible – was a public signal of status, belonging and obligation.

This matters for contemporary Africa. Economic policy often treats markets as anonymous spaces where prices alone coordinate behaviour. Yet across much of the continent, markets still operate through trust and reputation. For example, one recent study shows African firms in historically pastoral regions remain smaller, partly because pastoralists are less likely to trust those outside the immediate family.

Even today, credit access, business partnerships and labour arrangements remain deeply relational. The Cape’s auctions remind us that markets have always been social institutions and that ignoring this leads to poor policy design.

3. Inequality is not a modern deviation but a historical constant

South Africa’s extreme inequality is often attributed to 20th-century industrialisation, apartheid policy and post-apartheid failures. While all of these matter, they do not tell the full story.

In another paper, I measured inequality in the Cape Colony between 1685 and 1844. The study used an expanded set of tax censuses, as well as probate inventories – lists of assets that people owned when they died – and slave valuation rolls – the lists created to compensate slave owners during the period of emancipation.

Wealth was highly unevenly distributed from the earliest periods of settlement. Today the situation would be described as severe inequality.

Even if we only consider settlers (and exclude enslaved and Khoesan inhabitants), wealth was very skewed. A small elite owned most productive resources.

Even more surprising, similar patterns appear in the limited records we have for Khoesan settlements.

In other words, wealth was severely unequally distributed not only between groups but also within.

This perspective forces us to rethink how we talk about inequality today. If inequality has deep historical roots, then it cannot be understood simply as a recent malfunction of modern capitalism, nor fixed by narrow technical adjustments to tax rates or social transfers.

Inequality, in other words, is not an anomaly to be corrected back to some imagined baseline of equality, but a recurring outcome of how societies organise power and production. That does not make severe inequality morally acceptable, but it does shift the policy question. The relevant issue is not whether inequality exists, but whether those at the bottom are becoming less poor and are more able to move up.

Looking back to think forward

The 18th-century Cape Colony does not offer ready-made policy solutions. What it offers is perspective. It shows how states govern through what they can observe and record, how markets operate through social ties as much as prices, and how inequality can persist across centuries.

The frustrated tax collector in Stellenbosch could not have imagined that his tax records would one day inform debates about governance, markets and inequality. Yet they can. They remind us that the past continues to shape the constraints within which policy is made, and the possibilities for change.

The Conversation

Johan Fourie receives funding from Riksbankens Jubileumsfond.

ref. Colonial tax records hold 3 lessons for South Africa today – economic historian – https://theconversation.com/colonial-tax-records-hold-3-lessons-for-south-africa-today-economic-historian-273407

When young adults can’t afford independence, family expectations fill the gap — from China’s ‘leftover women’ to Canada’s pressured youth

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Qian Liu, Assistant Professor of Law and Society, University of Calgary

I met Lufang Chen, a 30-year-old bank clerk based in the Fujian province of China, in 2016, after she had married a man she initially turned down years earlier. Although she preferred to remain single, and he was not her type anyway, she gave in to avoid the label “leftover woman.”

The derogatory and stigmatizing term “leftover woman” — or Sheng nü in Chinese — is used to describe one’s social status and refers to women in their late 20s and beyond who have never married. The label suggests these women have failed to “sell” themselves on the marriage market at the “best” time and have therefore become leftover products that are depreciating rapidly.

At the time I was conducting interviews for my book on the lived experiences of these women — Leftover Women in China: Understanding Legal Consciousness through Intergenerational Relationships — released last August, Chen told me she married out of an obligation to live up to parental expectations:

“I only got married to free my parents from the pressure imposed on them by gossipy, nosy relatives, as well as to ease their worries about my future. After all, my parents have sacrificed so much and are always ready to do everything for me.”

Chen was especially grateful to her parents for buying her an apartment when she could barely cover her living expenses. Her parents were also prepared to provide child care once, not if, she had a child.

What this story reveals is not simply a cultural expectation around marriage, but how parental financial support can reshape the autonomy of young adults.

Structural forces and family dynamics in China

In recent decades, the extreme unaffordability of housing in urban China has made it almost impossible for young adults to purchase a home without financial support from their parents. Meanwhile, as inflexible work schedules and overtime have become the norm, grandparenting has become crucial to ensuring young adults can focus on their careers.

Leftover Women in China demonstrates how the downflow of family resources — from the older generation to the young, including housing and child care support — results in a sense of guilt and provides the justification for parental intervention in marital decisions.

This phenomenon ultimately reduces effective communication among family members and marginalizes the desires of young adults.

Many of these so-called “leftover women” don’t feel it’s appropriate to openly discuss or negotiate marital choices and childbearing with their parents. Instead, a sense of guilt prompts these daughters to focus on perceptions of parental expectations that prioritize their parents’ desires and often go even beyond what their parents explicitly request.

Canadian classrooms reveal family pressure

Eventually, as a university professor, I noticed this type of parent-child interaction also appears in the West, including Canadian society.

Take students’ academic performance and career decisions, for example. I observed a strong sense of guilt and desire to repay parents, especially among students of mine whose parents have endured hardship or offered unconditional support.

Students from immigrant families have frequently mentioned pressure to succeed academically. When I asked about their motivations, they often responded by saying they want to live up to parental expectations. This sense of duty seemed especially strong among students whose parents were highly qualified professionals in their home countries and now work long hours in manual or unskilled labour to provide for their families.

As Vivian Louie, professor of urban policy and planning at Hunter College, suggests, immigrant parents’ sacrifices often motivate their children to excel academically. This is also supported by a socio-legal study on responsibility, love and guilt in Latino mixed-status families.

Over the years, many students have told me their parents don’t need to explicitly ask them to pursue a lucrative career, nor have they necessarily discussed it with them. Instead, students pick up cues from societal and community perceptions of success to make their parents proud.

When parental support becomes essential

This phenomenon, however, is not limited to students with immigrant backgrounds. A sociological study on career decisions of Harvard law students reveals that students from low-income or working-class backgrounds frequently felt that failure to obtain a lucrative position would let their families down due to the financial sacrifices their family members have made for them.

The more I spoke with my students, the more I realized that Canadian young adults are facing increasing parental intervention in particular due to the persistence of inflation and housing unaffordability.

More of them than ever before are living with their parents well into their 20s to reduce costs. For many, this has become a necessity rather than a choice.

According to a 2025 Statistics Canada report, financial support from parents for down payments has become both crucial and widespread among young homeowners. In British Columbia, for example, average parental financial support for a first-home down payment exceeds $200,000.

It’s true that collectivist culture in Chinese society contributes to the desire for “leftover women” to meet parental expectations and prioritize their needs and interests. But my observations in Canadian classrooms suggest that parental financial support — combined with the sacrifices they make for their children — can also cultivate guilt among young adults in individualist cultures like Canada.

The Conversation

Qian Liu receives funding from the International Development Research Centre and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.

ref. When young adults can’t afford independence, family expectations fill the gap — from China’s ‘leftover women’ to Canada’s pressured youth – https://theconversation.com/when-young-adults-cant-afford-independence-family-expectations-fill-the-gap-from-chinas-leftover-women-to-canadas-pressured-youth-270013

How the ocean’s hydrothermal systems made the first life on Earth possible

Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Long Li, Professor, Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta

A black smoker hydrothermal vent at a wa­ter depth of 3,300 meters in the Log­atchev Hy­dro­thermal Field on the Mid-At­lantic Ridge. (Zentrum für Marine Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Bremen), CC BY

Our planet is unique for its ability to sustain abundant life. From studies of the rock record, scientists believe life had already emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago and probably much earlier.

But how a habitable environment developed, and how the very first life emerged on the early Earth, remain puzzling. One of the big challenges for Earth to be habitable in its infancy was the weak solar energy it received.

Astrophysical models indicate that the sun had only about 70 per cent of its current luminosity when the Earth was born around 4.5 billion years ago. That would have resulted in Earth’s surface being frozen until around two billion years ago.

Nonetheless, scientific investigations indicate the Earth had warm oceans and habitable environments as early as 4.4 billion years ago. This contradiction is known as the faint young sun paradox.

Solving this paradox and the generation of the first life both involve a key chemical compound — ammonia. But the source of ammonia on the early Earth before biological nitrogen processing emerged remains unknown.

Colleagues in China and my research group at the University of Alberta recently published our study of minerals deposited from hydrothermal fluids in oceanic crusts drilled from the South China Sea basin. We discovered that mineral-catalyzed chemical reactions in underwater hydrothermal systems can produce the necessary ingredients for a habitable world and life on Earth.

Hypothesis of the origin of life

An explainer on hydrothermal vents (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)

Earth’s first life is hypothesized to be generated by a series of abiotic processes, also known as abiogenesis. Under this hypothesis, the building blocks of the first life were synthezised on Earth from basic inorganic compounds by abiotic reactions, or were brought to here by meteorites.

In 1953, American chemist Stanley Miller, then a graduate student working with Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey at the University of Chicago, discovered production of amino acids in his experiments simulating lightning in an early-Earth atmosphere composed of water moisture and several gases (methane, ammonia and hydrogen molecules).

These life-building blocks could subsequently deposit into the ocean for life development. This ground-breaking discovery by Miller implied that abiogenesis of life on Earth is possible.

Gases like methane, ammonia and hydrogen were not only essential compounds for synthesis of organic matter in Miller’s experiments. They are also key ingredients to establishing a habitable environment on early Earth.

They have all been proposed as potential contributors, either directly as greenhouse gases or indirectly as amplifiers of other greenhouse gases, to warm up early Earth’s surface under the faint young sun.

Where did these gases come from?

A problem, though, is that these gases were not the primary components on early Earth’s surface in the first place. Instead, the dominant forms of carbon and nitrogen were carbon dioxide and dinitrogen.

That means the very first step toward making Earth habitable and generating the first life had to be inorganic reactions to turn carbon dioxide into methane and dinitrogen into ammonia, also known as abiotic carbon and nitrogen reduction reactions.

Where and how did these reduction reactions take place?

The world’s ocean floors contain abundant hydrothermal systems where cold seawater flows into deep oceanic crust and subsequently mixes with ascending magmatic fluids. The mixed hot fluids are emitted back through hydrothermal vents such as black smokers or white smokers.

Along this pathway, water and dissolved components can react with primary minerals in the oceanic crust to produce secondary minerals and other byproducts. Methane and dihydrogen, formed by mineral-catalyzed abiotic reduction reactions during this process, have been widely observed in the emitted hydrothermal fluids.

Therefore, underwater hydrothermal systems have been considered as the most likely incubator for habitable environment and the origin of life.

A brief overview of the role hydrothermal vents play in life started on Earth (TED-Ed)

Searching for evidence

Yet there still exists a missing piece in this picture: the abiotic reduction of dinitrogen has not been confirmed to occur in hydrothermal systems. Scientists have searched hard for evidence of this reaction, abiotic ammonia, but have had no luck so far.

The ammonia (mostly in its dissolved form, ammonium ion) that has been detected in hydrothermal fluids collected from active vent mouths turned out to be mainly biological and not abiotic in origin.

The relatively small amount of abiotic ammonium there might be can easily be concealed by the large amount of biological ammonium in seawater. It is impossible to avoid seawater contamination while collecting submarine hydrothermal fluid samples.

However, secondary minerals deposited from hydrothermal fluids can lock some ammonium into their internal structures and protect it from being contaminated by shallow seawater and mixing with biological ammonium. Therefore, studying secondary minerals in the deep oceanic crust can better unravel the ammonium source and producing mechanism in the deep hydrothermal systems.

However, such samples are not easily to collect. The International Ocean Discovery Program has made tremendous efforts to drill deep into the oceanic crust to collect samples. Luckily, a set of secondary mineral samples were discovered in a 200-metre drill core from the South China Sea.

A missing piece of the puzzle

For our study, we looked into a specific chemical feature, namely nitrogen isotopes, for the ammonium locked in the hydrothermal minerals.

Nitrogen has two isotopes with atomic mass 14 and 15, respectively. Mineral-catalyzed abiotic dinitrogen reduction strongly prefers to use the one with an atomic mass of 14. That results in a unique nitrogen isotope signature in the ammonium it produces.

Our results are consistent with this isotopic signature. This demonstrates production of ammonia or ammonium by abiotic dinitrogen reduction in underwater hydrothermal systems.

This discovery adds a missing piece of puzzle to our theories about the origins of life on Earth. These underwater hydrothermal systems at the bottom of the ocean enabled the first-step reactions of all life-constituting elements on our planet.

The Conversation

Long Li receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

ref. How the ocean’s hydrothermal systems made the first life on Earth possible – https://theconversation.com/how-the-oceans-hydrothermal-systems-made-the-first-life-on-earth-possible-271920

Trump’s insistence on personal loyalty from ambassadors could crimp US foreign policy

Source: The Conversation – USA – By David Lindsey, Professor of Political Science, Baruch College, CUNY

President Trump’s mass firing of career ambassadors was unprecedented. AP Photo/Alex Brandon

Just before Christmas, President Donald Trump fired more than two dozen career ambassadors. The action was unprecedented, providing a clear signal that when it comes to diplomacy, Trump values loyalty above all else.

All ambassadors face a persistent tension in their roles – having to represent the viewpoints of the president while also winning the trust of leaders in the countries where they serve. Presidents, unsurprisingly, often favor loyalists, in whom they have greater confidence.

Trump has pursued this to an exceptional degree, making more purely political picks than normal. Of the nearly 70 ambassadors he has appointed to date during this term, fewer than 10% have been career professionals with experience in the Foreign Service.

But as I have argued in my book “Delegated Diplomacy,” there is value in working through diplomats who disagree with you.

A diplomat who unfailingly follows the Washington line contributes little to a bilateral relationship, becoming nothing more than an expensive substitute for a secure phone line. A skilled ambassador knows when to soften a message, recognizes when pushing too hard will backfire, and sees the value in compromise.

At times, this diplomatic approach may sacrifice short-run gains available through more aggressive means. But in precisely those moments when leverage is most necessary, an ambassador who’s established trust can push harder and gain more as a result.

All the president’s men

The idea that U.S. career diplomats place too much weight on foreign interests, rather than putting American, or presidential, interests first, is a perennial suspicion.

Presidents have felt this way themselves. In 1952, President Harry Truman wrote, “The State Department is clannish and snooty and sometimes I feel like firing the whole bunch.” Two decades later, President Richard M. Nixon told Henry Kissinger, his national security adviser and soon-to-be secretary of state, that he intended “to ruin the Foreign Service. I mean ruin it.”

Neither of those presidents followed through. With his mass firing of career diplomats, Trump has come closer. His administration has made it clear that loyalty will dominate its diplomatic personnel policy, with the State Department itself asserting the “president’s right to ensure he has individuals in these countries who advance the America First agenda.”

A head shot depicting Marco Rubio, the secretary of State.
Secretary of State Marco Rubio has helped purge hundreds of career Foreign Service officers at home and abroad, seeking to align his department with ‘America First’ principles.
AP Photo/Cliff Owen

Not only has Trump weighted the diplomatic corps with political appointees, but he’s often bypassed even his own ambassadors in favor of working informally through members of his inner circle.

The administration’s most delicate tasks, such as dealing with the wars in Gaza and Ukraine, have often been delegated to Steve Witkoff, a real estate developer whose primary qualification appears to be his close friendship with the president, and Jared Kushner, Trump’s son-in-law.

Close personal ties

A preference to work diplomatically through intimates is understandable. Close personal knowledge of the president can provide credibility and weight to an envoy’s word. There is ample precedent for such selections, such as John F. Kennedy’s reliance in 1962 on his brother Robert as his crucial intermediary during the Cuban missile crisis, in which the U.S. ultimately convinced the Soviet Union to remove nuclear weapons from Cuba.

Such ties are likely to be all the more important in the current administration, where the president maintains such an openness to unconventional foreign policy choices. Career ambassadors who know no more about the president’s intentions than whatever the world can read in his latest Truth Social posts may not be able to do their jobs effectively, whether they ultimately keep them or not.

Career vs. political

American ambassadors receive their posts through two tracks. Historically, a minority of ambassadors have been political appointees selected by the president, often as the result of close ties to him. These ambassadors routinely leave their positions when a new administration takes office.

Jared Kusher and Steve Witkoff walk past the French and European Union flags outside a Paris meeting.
Trump has relied on close allies to carry out key missions, including son-in-law Jared Kushner, left, and his friend Steven Witkoff.
AP Photo/Thomas Padilla

The majority of ambassadors – including those who were recently fired – are career Foreign Service officers, most of whom have spent decades working their way up through the ranks of the diplomatic corps under presidents of both parties. Selected internally by the State Department – but subject to White House sign-off – these ambassadors serve on a nonpartisan basis and nearly always complete their tours of duty, informally set at three years, regardless of presidential turnover.

Diplomats have value to the president precisely because they have cultivated relationships, trust and expertise overseas through a willingness to understand and sympathize with foreign audiences. But this also means that they may rarely be in lockstep with the president’s view of the world. Hence, the friction ambassadors face in their in-between role.

Loss of experience

It is one thing to fire ambassadors who have impeded the president’s agenda in some way; it is quite another to clear them out preemptively as Trump did in December. Ultimately, the loss of the expertise and relationships accrued by career diplomats will likely bite.

Professional diplomats are trained and acculturated to set aside their own views. As former Under Secretary of State Stuart Eizenstat once observed, Foreign Service officers “bend over backward to follow every U.S. president’s leadership, even when they disagree with specific policies.”

This is precisely why previous administrations have not fulfilled their fantasies of dismantling the Foreign Service. Truman, despite his contempt, conceded that “it requires a tremendous amount of education to accomplish the purposes for which the State Department is set up.” During Kissinger’s time as secretary of state, the Nixon administration ended up selecting an uncommonly high number of careerists for key positions.

This has not been Trump’s approach. It’s unlikely that will change. He demands loyalty throughout his administration, but diplomats have given him particular reason to think they might flout his wishes. In 2017, a thousand U.S. diplomats signed on to a message arguing that the administration’s travel ban would be counterproductive. A similar number joined a message this year protesting the administration’s closure of the United States Agency for International Development, or USAID.

Clearly, some officers will dissent so vigorously as to be unwilling to advance certain policies. They can be expected to resign, as many of their colleagues have done already.

But the career diplomats who remain will speak with a louder voice on the international stage precisely because the world believes they are not lapdogs.

The Conversation

David Lindsey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Trump’s insistence on personal loyalty from ambassadors could crimp US foreign policy – https://theconversation.com/trumps-insistence-on-personal-loyalty-from-ambassadors-could-crimp-us-foreign-policy-273087

US turns its back on global efforts for women and children terrorized by violence and conflict

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Shelley Inglis, Senior Visiting Scholar with the Center for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights, Rutgers University

Secretary of State Marco Rubio, center, and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Mike Waltz listen as President Donald Trump speaks to the U.N. General Assembly on Sept. 23, 2025, in New York. AP Photo/Evan Vucci

The Trump administration’s recent announcement that it is withdrawing from 66 international organizations and treaties is another blow to the global system where all countries unite to share concerns, agree on rules of conduct and determine agendas for collective action.

Coming on the heels of the U.S. attack on Venezuela – considered a violation of international lawthe White House claims, without specific justification, that these organizations and initiatives “operate contrary to U.S. national interests, security, economic prosperity or sovereignty.”

Some experts say many of these organizations are niche and peripheral initiatives. They say the groups receive little money from the U.S., anyway.

Additionally, most of the U.N. entities on the administration’s list are part of the U.N.’s main body, the Secretariat, which gets its funding primarily from membership dues that are required by legal obligations. In fact, the U.S. can’t technically withdraw from these groups without leaving the U.N. completely. It can, however, select not to participate in meetings of these bodies or finance them through additional funds.

Moreover, with the White House already defunding the foreign assistance that supported many of these organizations and the U.N. system, regardless of congressional appropriations, this stated withdrawal is unlikely to alter much for these organizations in the short term.

The loss is likely greater to America.

Foreign policy experts assert that leaving empty the U.S. seat at the table will result in an increasingly isolated America and enable its adversaries, such as China, to fill the void.

As a democracy and peacebuilding scholar, and from my years working at the U.N., I know U.S. withdrawal from these organizations also risks undercutting lasting peace and human rights accountability, especially for women and children terrorized by violence and conflict.

Women and children die first

Peace and human rights-related groups loom large on the list of organizations the U.S. has withdrawn from.

The list includes key U.N. bodies that seek to hold states accountable for rape and use of child soldiers in conflict, among other crimes.

The U.N. offices of the Special Representative on Children in Armed Conflict and on Sexual Violence in Conflict are unique global repositories of detailed reporting used by countries, courts and advocates.

These offices can identify violations and trigger action to prevent rape and violence against women and children. This can lead to targeted sanctions against people and other restrictions, national action plans compelling reform, and even international criminal prosecutions.

Additionally, the U.S. will no longer support U.N. peacebuilding efforts. That includes the Peacebuilding Commission and its attendant Peacebuilding Fund. Yet by virtue of its permanent member status on the Security Council, the U.S. is a member of the commission.

Established in 2005 to help countries avoid a return to conflict, the Peacebuilding Commission claims among its successes formerly war-torn but now stable countries such as Sierra Leone and Liberia, which had Africa’s first democratically elected female leader. These bodies prioritize women and youth engagement in building peace.

A soldier tells people to get into a helicopter.
A U.S. soldier shouts to evacuees to hurry as they board a helicopter at the West African peacekeeping force ECOMOG compound in Monrovia, Liberia on April 12, 1996.
AP Photo/Christophe Simon, Pool

Also on the list is the United Nations group focused on gender equality and women’s empowerment, known as UN Women. Established in 2010, the agency promotes women’s rights and helps women and girls prosper. UN Women has helped improve laws and policies for women in 83 countries and leads major efforts, including the Spotlight Initiative that aims to end violence against women and girls in more than 25 countries.

More than half of UN Women’s current budget of over US$2 billion for 2026 through 2029 goes to empowering women in war-affected societies and tackling violence against women and girls.

The U.S. served multiple times on the UN Women executive board, which steers the direction of the organization, including between 2023 and 2025. It does this, in part, by approving its strategy, plans and budget.

With the U.S. leaving its seat in steering the organization, Secretary of State Marco Rubio recently said that UN Women has failed “to define what a woman even is.”

With such an adversarial approach, the absence of the Trump administration seeking to spoil human rights protections might be advantageous for these groups in the short term.

But the lack of U.S. financial and political support may weaken these organizations in the long term, eroding their legitimacy and even opening the door for other countries to further undermine their efforts. That might endanger the already politically sensitive challenge of promoting accountability for serious violations of women’s and children’s rights.

‘Adapt, shrink or die’

The specter of the U.S. further abandoning peace and human rights efforts remains.

Rubio said on Jan. 7, 2026, that the administration’s review of additional organizations continues. That reinforces a recent State Department statement to the U.N. – “adapt, shrink or die.”

Some key international and U.N. entities that promote peace and human rights were not on the list, including the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the U.N.’s chief human rights institution – a bully pulpit that has been used sparingly against the second Trump administration so far.

Several men sit in a conference hall.
U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio, center, listens to President Donald Trump during the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, on Jan. 21, 2026.
AP Photo/Evan Vucci

But the U.S. has recently been disrupting long-standing, U.N.-mediated agreements on human rights concerns, including for children.

In 2025, it voted against 38 resolutions in the General Assembly’s human rights committee alone. For example, for the Rights of the Child resolution, the U.S. took the unusual and divisive step of calling for a general vote, even though text had been previously agreed upon. Despite the U.S. “no” vote, the resolution passed, with over 170 states voting in favor.

The Trump administration has also selectively funded certain U.N. peace efforts. For example, of its $682 million contribution to U.N. peacekeeping, it has earmarked $85 million for Haiti – around half of what it actually owes.

It cherry-picked the conflict areas to fund – excluding Yemen, Afghanistan and Gaza – with its $2 billion in humanitarian aid, a steep decline from the U.S. contribution of around $14 billion in 2024.

And it refused to participate in the U.N’s Universal Periodic Review – the only global peer review process for all countries’ human rights efforts. The group’s recommendations, though voluntary, often trigger action to improve human rights. Failure to show up in November 2026 for a postponed review would mean that America becomes the first country ever to undermine this singular means of accountability.

For now, most other U.N. member states are not following suit.

While the U.S. has been able to force changes to language on sexual- and gender-based violence in Security Council resolutions – where it holds a veto – its efforts have gained little traction in the broader body. Losing that language erases years of progress in recognizing that men and boys are also subject to sexual violence and exploitation and deserve international protection.

Most tellingly, the Trump administration’s new Board of Peace – ostensibly for Gaza – appears designed to displace the U.N. itself without reference to the core principles, including human rights, on which the U.N. Charter stands.

The Conversation

From May 2023 until July 1, 2025, the author served in the Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance at the United States Agency for International Development (U.S.A.I.D.).

ref. US turns its back on global efforts for women and children terrorized by violence and conflict – https://theconversation.com/us-turns-its-back-on-global-efforts-for-women-and-children-terrorized-by-violence-and-conflict-273177

A government can choose to investigate the killing of a protestor − or choose to blame the victim and pin it all on ‘domestic terrorism’

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Stephanie A. (Sam) Martin, Frank and Bethine Church Endowed Chair of Public Affairs, Boise State University

Has it become perilous to exercise free speech in the U.S.? nadia_bormotova/iStock Getty Images

The question the First Amendment keeps asking, across wars and panics and moral crusades, is whether a democracy can tolerate the possibility of persuasion.

There’s a certain school of thought that says no. Persuasion is too perilous.

I call this way of thinking “swallow-a-fly logic.” I’m referring, of course, to the popular children’s song where a woman ingests a fly and then keeps devouring bigger animals to fix it, until she dies from eating a horse.

It leads to the “old lady who swallowed a fly” theory of obedience: If we let someone with a message we don’t like speak out, people might be persuaded. If people become persuaded, they might stop supporting the war, the president, the government, itself. If support evaporates, enlistment drops or compliance weakens as the state loses leverage. If enlistment drops, the government might fall. And if there is no government, then who cares about the First Amendment?

By this way of thinking, free speech is dangerous because the public is too influence-able, and influence is too unpredictable, and security is too precious.

The constitutional tradition of free speech, when it is working at its best, says yes anyway, go ahead and speak. The alternative is a politics in which the state survives by making dissenters illegitimate as citizens.

That’s what happened to Renée Good when she was shot and killed by ICE in Minneapolis on Jan. 7, 2026. Her resistance had made her menacing.

A crowd of protesters on a city corner in the night.
People gather on Jan. 8, 2026, for a protest of the killing of Renee Nicole Good in Minneapolis, Minn.
Stephen Maturen/Getty Images

Dissent as a virus

I’m a professor of public service and vice chair of the National Communication Association’s Communication and Law Division. My research examines how news institutions shape civic life and how freedom of expression is both a fundamental human right and a fundamental part of democracy.

In modern First Amendment doctrine, the government usually cannot punish speech unless it crosses narrow lines like incitement.

But when national security is invoked, the rules for speech appear to change. Dissent is treated less as persuasion to be debated and more like a virus to be contained before it harms public morale. That containment logic, either overt or covert, has repeatedly reappeared whenever protest has become politically inconvenient and unpalatable to those in power. It’s the kind of thinking that led to Jimmy Kimmel’s suspension from “Jimmy Kimmel Live!” after poking fun at President Donald Trump.

A terror memo. A protest. A killing.

National Security Presidential Memorandum 7, issued by the Trump administration in September 2025, relies on logic from the lady and the fly. It frames “domestic terrorism” and “organized political violence” as national security crises. It tells federal agencies to work together to investigate and stop suspected threats, a framework that enlarges the set of things the state can plausibly treat as suspect, including the freedoms of association and belief.

The language in the memorandum affirms legitimate counterterrorism work while leaving room to treat political dissent as out of bounds. But the First Amendment protects protest speech.

Still, if the language of the Trump memo is somewhat abstract, Minneapolis has provided a brutally concrete example.

When an ICE agent shot and killed Good, a 37-year-old U.S. citizen, federal officials characterized the encounter as an act of self-defense by an agent afraid of being run down by Good in her car.

Local authorities have disputed that framing.

The incident was captured on video that widely circulated and intensified public scrutiny. According to Good’s wife, the couple were protesters who confronted heavily armed agents determined to scare them away. No one tried to run anyone over, she said.

Amid this controversy, the story took a sharp turn. Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem said Good appeared to have been committing “an act of domestic terrorism.” Trump called Good “very violent” and “very radical.”

Reports claim that Department of Justice leadership pushed federal prosecutors to investigate Good’s widow, even as the department declined to open a civil rights probe into the shooting itself.

At least six federal prosecutors in the Minneapolis U.S. attorney’s office resigned in response.

Soon after Renée Good was killed by an ICE officer, DHS Sec. Kristi Noem claimed that Good had committed “domestic terrorism.”

Turning victims into suspects

The state has two choices when a death occurs that’s politically dangerous to the government.

It can investigate the killing with transparency and center the victim’s rights alongside public accountability as organizing principles. Or it can treat the killing as an opportunity to put the victim on trial in the court of public legitimacy.

The second choice avoids holding government accountable, shifts conversation toward the target’s supposed behavior and character, and expands the blame to include the people who loved and stood with the dead.

When this happens, the government does not have to win in court. It only has to keep the stigma circulating by asserting that a particular speaker undermines respect for elected officials. Indeed, that’s one of the reasons Trump offered for Good’s shooting by the ICE officer: “At a very minimum, that woman was very, very disrespectful to law enforcement,” he told reporters.

The United States has been here before. Around EG: During? World War I, the U.S. Supreme Court issued several free speech decisions in cases mostly remembered as disputes over protest and draft resistance. But their underlying engine was the swallow-a-fly theory. Opposing the war might ruin the nation, so political dissidents had to be stopped, and the court affirmed the government’s right to silence strident speakers.

The Cold War era sharpened the same approach but made it about identity. The Smith Act, passed in 1940, curbed speech that advocated the violent overthrow of the government. In practice, Smith Act cases treated any type of communist sympathy as illegal, presumptively falling outside democratic tolerance.

The government did not have to prove a threat was real and required response. Instead, it had to show that certain ideas were too dangerous to be part of open conversation.

Finally, in Brandenburg v. Ohio from 1969, the Supreme Court went in the opposite direction, affirming free speech rights even for those advocating vile ideas.

The justices overturned the conviction of a Ku Klux Klan leader and held that the government cannot punish advocacy just because it is extreme, hateful or possibly perilous. Only speech “directed at inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action” may be quelched, the court wrote. The danger has to be real, and it has to be happening right now. Otherwise, citizens are free to say what they will.

New ways to chill speech

So, if the Supreme Court has settled the issue, why does it feel alive again now?

Contemporary crackdowns rarely present themselves as crackdowns. They present themselves as “coordination,” “threat assessment,” “financial disruption,” “extremism prevention” and, increasingly, as necessary defenses against “domestic terrorism.”

The Trump administration’s September 2025 national security memorandum is exactly the kind of framework that makes these routes attractive, because it invites the state to treat political conflict not as disagreement but as a security threat – something to be managed by the tools and instincts of national security.

Seen in this light, the resignations of federal government attorneys in Minneapolis are not just a bureaucratic drama. They are a window into the government’s underlying theory of the case. Investigate victims and their associates instead of scrutinizing the state’s use of force. Frame the victim’s death as the inevitable consequence of being their type. As Trump said of Good: She was a “professional agitator.”

Minneapolis is not just a tragedy. It is a test of whether the country still backs the central promise of modern free speech doctrine. Government may not suppress speech and association simply because it fears what the public might come to believe.

The Conversation

Stephanie A. (Sam) Martin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. A government can choose to investigate the killing of a protestor − or choose to blame the victim and pin it all on ‘domestic terrorism’ – https://theconversation.com/a-government-can-choose-to-investigate-the-killing-of-a-protestor-or-choose-to-blame-the-victim-and-pin-it-all-on-domestic-terrorism-273434