Educación musical en la infancia: un entrenamiento invisible para el cerebro

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Paloma Bravo-Fuentes, Profesora ayudante doctora del área de Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Universidad de Málaga

Fh Photo/Shutterstock

Aprender música en la infancia no solo despierta la sensibilidad artística: también entrena el cerebro. Diversos estudios en neurociencia han demostrado que la práctica musical mejora la atención, la memoria y la capacidad de planificar, habilidades esenciales para el desarrollo cognitivo y emocional de los niños y de las niñas.

Eso sí, los beneficios no aparecen por igual en todos los casos: dependen del tipo de aprendizaje, de su duración y de la calidad de la enseñanza. Por eso, cuando se vive como una experiencia educativa estructurada, la música se convierte en una gran aliada para que el alumnado escolar crezca con más creatividad, confianza y capacidad cognitiva.

Control, memoria y flexibilidad

A continuación, enumero lo que se sabe sobre el impacto del aprendizaje musical en el cerebro infantil, con datos recientes:

  1. Control inhibitorio: se han identificado numerosas mejoras en nuestra capacidad de frenar impulsos automáticos o respuestas inapropiadas.

  2. Memoria de trabajo y flexibilidad cognitiva: la memoria de trabajo es la capacidad de mantener y manipular información de manera temporal para realizar una tarea. Por ejemplo, recordar un número mientras lo anotamos. La flexibilidad cognitiva sin embargo, se refiere a la habilidad de cambiar de estrategia, perspectiva o foco de atención según lo requiera la situación. Permite adaptarse a nuevas reglas, resolver problemas de diferentes maneras o ser capaz de alternar entre tareas. Ambas son fundamentales en la etapa preescolar, ya que sostienen el aprendizaje y la capacidad de adaptación ante nuevas tareas. Estudios recientes con población infantil confirman que la educación musical puede favorecer estas habilidades.

  3. Lenguaje y lectura: La relación entre música y lenguaje se ha ido probando más consistentemente en los últimos años, mostrando cómo ciertos componentes del aprendizaje musical pueden transferirse a las habilidades lectoras. En particular, la alfabetización musical y el entrenamiento rítmico favorecen la conciencia fonológica y la fluidez lectora, al reforzar la percepción de patrones sonoros y la sincronización temporal.

  4. Cambios cerebrales: La práctica musical no solo influye en el comportamiento, sino que también produce modificaciones observables en el cerebro. Estudios de seguimiento longitudinal muestran que una formación musical continuada induce cambios tanto microestructurales como macroestructurales en regiones implicadas en el procesamiento auditivo y en el control motor. La práctica musical se asocia con un aumento de la integridad de la sustancia blanca y modificaciones volumétricas en áreas auditivas primarias y en circuitos motores, evidenciando la plasticidad cerebral derivada de la educación musical.




Leer más:
Aprender música enseña a leer


Cómo interpretar estos resultados

Las ventajas citadas provienen de estudios muy variados, con metodología y objetivos diversos. Esto quiere decir que no pueden asumirse como aplicables a todas las circunstancias y a todas las personas. La pedagogía empleada, la formación del profesorado, la duración de las intervenciones y la fidelidad con la que se implementan son factores que influyen en cuánto y cómo podemos beneficiarnos de estudiar música.

Por ello, trasladar estos hallazgos al aula de primaria exige diseñar propuestas musicales que estén estructuradas, que sean intencionales y que no estén encaminadas únicamente al aprendizaje musical en sí, sino a un desarrollo integral del alumnado. de esta manera, algunas propuestas sencillas podrían ser:

  1. Semáforo rítmico (para trabajar el control inhibitorio). Favorece la capacidad de frenar impulsos automáticos. El alumnado sigue un patrón rítmico concreto cuando la luz está en verde y debe detenerse en rojo, usando percusión corporal o instrumentos sencillos.

    A diferencia de otros juegos como el “escondite inglés”, en el que también hay que parar de repente, la clave de este recurso está en el papel del ritmo. Este introduce una estructura temporal que guía la atención y el movimiento: los niños y niñas no actúan de manera libre, sino que deben ajustarse a una secuencia repetida de tiempos. En otras palabras, el ritmo genera un automatismo motor y atencional que resulta más difícil de frenar que un simple movimiento libre. Al tener que parar justo en un momento concreto, el alumnado ejercita mayor control sobre sus impulsos y mejora la sincronización entre atención, percepción auditiva y acción motora. Además, se activa la dimensión musical y expresiva, lo que hace la actividad más atractiva y motivadora.

  2. Eco en capas (para trabajar la memoria de trabajo). El profesorado propone secuencias rítmicas o melódicas que el alumnado debe repetir y acumular. Cada secuencia exige mantener y manipular información de manera temporal.

    Al repetir y encadenar secuencias, el alumnado desarrolla el oído musical, ya que aprende a reconocer patrones sonoros y a diferenciarlos entre sí. También mejora la precisión rítmica y melódica, porque no basta con recordar la secuencia: hay que reproducirla con fidelidad. A medida que las se acumulan, los niños y niñas ejercitan la anticipación (saber qué viene después), la coordinación (responder a tiempo) y la creatividad musical (al explorar combinaciones nuevas).

  3. Ritmo-sílaba-letra (para fortalecer el aprendizaje de la lectura). Se asocian patrones rítmicos con sílabas y palabras para reforzar la conciencia fonológica. ¿Cómo se hace? El profesorado propone un pulso estable con palmas, instrumentos o incluso marcando el compás con el pie. Sobre ese pulso, el alumnado va “encajando” las sílabas de una palabra o frase. Por ejemplo, la palabra “ca-sa” se dice en dos golpes, una sílaba por cada pulso. Después se pueden construir frases enteras, distribuyendo las sílabas en el ritmo.

    De este modo, el ritmo funciona como soporte para organizar el lenguaje: cada sílaba tiene su lugar, lo que refuerza la conciencia fonológica (darse cuenta de que las palabras se componen de partes más pequeñas). Además, al practicar con frases más largas, el alumnado gana fluidez lectora, porque no solo descifra las letras, sino que coordina voz, ritmo y comprensión de manera integrada.

  4. Percusión corporal con reglas cambiantes (para fomentar la flexibilidad cognitiva). Se inician patrones de percusión corporal que cambian según una señal. El alumnado debe adaptarse rápidamente a la nueva regla.

    Un patrón de percusión corporal es una secuencia rítmica repetida con el cuerpo (por ejemplo: palma–muslo–palma–chasquido). El grupo sigue un patrón y, cuando el profesorado da una señal, debe cambiar rápidamente a otro. Este ejercicio obliga a romper la rutina y adaptarse a nuevas reglas, entrenando la flexibilidad cognitiva mientras se trabaja de forma musical y divertida.

Uso intencional de la música

En definitiva, la música no es solo una materia artística con la que se enseña a tocar un instrumento o a leer partituras. También es una herramienta pedagógica poderosa cuando es utilizada de forma intencionada. Los ejemplos añadidos (juegos rítmicos, ecos melódicos, percusión corporal…) muestran cómo las dinámicas musicales pueden ayudar a entrenar la atención y la memoria, además de reforzar la lectura, entre otros beneficios.

La clave está en que dichos beneficios no aparecen por sí solos con cualquier clase de música: surgen cuando el profesorado diseña propuestas específicas que combinan el disfrute estético y musical con objetivos cognitivos claros. Dicho de otro modo: no se trata solo de “aprender música”, sino de usar la música como un puente para aprender mejor.

The Conversation

Paloma Bravo-Fuentes no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

ref. Educación musical en la infancia: un entrenamiento invisible para el cerebro – https://theconversation.com/educacion-musical-en-la-infancia-un-entrenamiento-invisible-para-el-cerebro-264319

¿Por qué somos hipócritas?

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Sergio Moreno Ríos, Catedrático de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Granada

Elnur/Shutterstock

Este artículo forma parte de la sección The Conversation Júnior, en la que especialistas de las principales universidades y centros de investigación contestan a las dudas de jóvenes curiosos de entre 12 y 16 años. Podéis enviar vuestras preguntas a tcesjunior@theconversation.com


Pregunta formulada por Victoria, de 14 años, del IES Giner de los Ríos (Motril)


Imagina que alguien defiende públicamente que es importante cuidar del medio ambiente y no derrochar el agua, pero en su casa dedica más del tiempo necesario a ducharse. Pues en eso consiste ser un hipócrita: en fingir que tenemos valores y creencias que los demás consideran positivos y comportarnos en privado de forma contraria a ellos.

Coherencia entre lo que decimos y hacemos

Al vivir en sociedad nos relacionamos con mucha gente. Gracias a que compartimos normas éticas, morales y cívicas podemos anticipar cómo se comportarán los demás y cómo debemos actuar nosotros. Así, esperamos que se cumplan las promesas, que no se hagan daño unas personas a otras, que los demás traten de ser justos…

Pero para ello es necesario que lo que decimos sea coherente con lo que luego hacemos. Ahora imagina que en tu clase anunciaran “mañana nos vamos de excursión”, y cuando llegaras al día siguiente no hubiera nadie. Para vivir en sociedad necesitamos confiar en esa coherencia y mostrar que nosotros también somos fiables.

Esto es tan importante para la subsistencia de los seres humanos que premiamos o castigamos a nuestros congéneres según sean o no coherentes.

Hipócrita para siempre

Si una persona comete un acto de hipocresía, su reputación queda marcada con esa etiqueta y la próxima vez que la veamos, desconfiaremos de ella. Es un atajo que usa la mente para evitar llevar la cuenta de cada una de las relaciones que hemos tenido durante todo el tiempo con todas y cada una de las personas que conocemos.

Es el modo preferido de funcionar de nuestro cerebro: usa caminos cortos y rápidos y agrupa lo que es parecido. Esto funciona muchas veces, aunque otras nos lleva a ser injustos (caemos en el estereotipo). Por ejemplo, si alguien solo ha cometido un desliz puntual, puede ser clasificado como “hipócrita” para siempre.

De hecho, un grupo de investigadores demostró que cuando alguien ha prometido comportarse de un modo pero actúa de otro (por ejemplo, un político en campaña promete algo que luego no cumple), consideraremos como hipócrita a quien incumplió su palabra aunque estemos de acuerdo con que en ese caso había que actuar de modo diferente.

La lucha entre lo que deseo y cómo quiero ser

Para sentirnos aceptados e integrados en nuestros grupos (amigos, compañeros de clase, la familia…) necesitamos tener una imagen moral positiva y coherente de nosotros mismos.

Sin embargo, a veces no es posible mantener esa coherencia: en la ducha estoy muy a gusto; si copio en el examen “un poco” sacaré más nota; o si me río cuando insultan a un compañero poco popular y no me ven otros, no se darán cuenta de que voy en contra de mi imagen de persona “respetuosa” y, a la vez, me ganaré el aplauso de los agresores.

De hecho, saltarse las normas puede acarrearnos ventajas. Pero ¿cómo lo hacemos sin que se dañe nuestra propia imagen y nuestra reputación ante los otros?

La resolución del conflicto

Reflexiona sobre esta situación: una joven sabe que el tabaco es perjudicial para la salud (norma social) e incluso ha defendido en clase el daño que hace a quien fuma y a quienes están cerca. Sin embargo, ella fuma a escondidas (transgresión), por lo que la consideramos una hipócrita.

El psicólogo estadounidense Leo Festinger utilizó el término de “disonancia cognitiva” para referirse a ese malestar psicológico por mantener dos ideas o actitudes contradictorias, o cuando el comportamiento no encaja con los valores. Entonces, para resolver el malestar, nuestra mente trata de buscar el equilibrio justificando la conducta (ha sido una sola vez, el cigarrillo tenía filtro, no lo he fumado entero…). Otras formas de solucionarlo es cambiar las creencias (fumar no es tan malo) o modificar el comportamiento (dejar de fumar).

Lo curioso es que se puede cambiar la conducta mediante esa disonancia cognitiva. Es lo que demostraron el psicólogo también estadounidense Elliot Aronson y sus colaboradores en 1991. Seleccionaron a un grupo de adolescentes que no usaban protección en sus relaciones sexuales aunque afirmaban conocer los riesgos de estas prácticas. Después, les pidieron que grabaran mensajes de vídeo animando a utilizar preservativo a otros adolescentes. Pues bien, la tensión psicológica entre “predicar” y “no practicar” ayudó a reducir las conductas de riesgo en mayor medida que otras estrategias preventivas.

Hipócrita peor que deshonesto

Según algunos estudios, consideramos peor ser hipócrita que deshonesto. Este último engaña para obtener beneficio, pero no trata de aparentar ser buena persona.

Aunque los dos se saltan las normas, cuando Luis dice “es inaceptable que Juana haya tomado pastillas para correr la maratón”, está lanzando una señal de su propia virtud a los demás. Si luego se descubre que Luis también tomó pastillas, no solo ha mentido: además ha conseguido “venderse” persona justa y honesta, y eso precisamente es lo que los demás detectan como despreciable.

¿Pero qué ocurre si Luis confiesa que había hecho trampa? Entonces evita la señal falsa de su virtud. Se muestra ante el resto como alguien que comete errores y su imagen se recupera. Vuelve a ser una persona fiable.

¿Todos somos hipócritas?

Todos estamos sometidos continuamente a tentaciones con las que obtener beneficio “haciendo pequeñas trampas”. Por ejemplo, es casi imposible mantener el equilibrio entre lo que pensamos y lo que hacemos sobre beber alcohol o copiar en los exámenes cuando estamos con nuestros padres frente a cuando estamos con nuestros compañeros de clase.

Es verdad: mentimos, cometemos actos de deshonestidad y somos hipócritas, pero la mayoría de las personas lo hacen muy poco. La razón no es tanto el miedo a que nos pillen, sino seguir viéndonos a nosotros mismos como personas justas y confiables. Las “pequeñas hipocresías” permiten que resolvamos los conflictos y preservemos nuestra imagen.


El museo interactivo Parque de las Ciencias de Andalucía y su Unidad de Cultura Científica e Innovación colaboran en la sección The Conversation Júnior.


The Conversation

Sergio Moreno Ríos recibe fondos de la Junta de Andalucía -Conserjería de
Universidad, investigación e innovación – Proyecto P21_00073.

ref. ¿Por qué somos hipócritas? – https://theconversation.com/por-que-somos-hipocritas-266601

¿Qué está pasando con el cáncer en la generación ‘millennial’?

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Lydia Begoña Horndler Gil, Profesor en inmunología y biología del cáncer, Universidad San Jorge


Dikushin Dmitry/Shutterstock

Si está leyendo estas líneas es posible que pertenezca a la generación millennial (como yo misma) y seguramente ha notado que cada vez hay más casos de amigos o conocidos con enfermedades que antes se asociaban a la adultez avanzada, como la hipertensión y la diabetes tipo 2. O, quizá, una que da más miedo nombrar: cáncer.

Los millennials (nacidos entre 1981 y 1995) forman parte de la primera generación con más riesgo de sufrir tumores que sus padres: entre 1990 y 2019, los casos de cáncer de inicio temprano entre menores de 50 aumentaron un 79 % en todo el mundo, y la mortalidad, un 28 %.

Lo cierto es que cerca del 80 % de los cánceres son “esporádicos”, es decir, no se deben a mutaciones hereditarias, sino a factores externos que dañan el ADN con el tiempo: lo que comemos, lo que respiramos, el nivel de actividad física que mantenemos, nuestro descanso, el estrés o la exposición a sustancias nocivas.

Factores de riesgo en la generación millennial.
Elaboración de la autora.

Dicho de otra forma, más que la genética que heredamos, lo que realmente marca la diferencia son los factores que nos rodean en nuestro día a día. Y está claro que el estilo de vida de nuestros padres o abuelos era diferente al nuestro.

La dieta y sus huellas en el cuerpo

Uno de los principales factores que explican esta “nueva epidemia” es la alimentación. La obesidad infantil comenzó a dispararse en los años 80. En 2022, más de 390 millones de niños y adolescentes de 5 a 19 años tenían sobrepeso, de los cuales 160 millones eran obesos, según la OMS.

Esta condición no es solo estética: se asocia a resistencia a la insulina, inflamación crónica de bajo grado y alteraciones hormonales que aumentan el riesgo de desarrollar cáncer colorrectal, mama o endometrio.

Y lo más relevante es que esos efectos no desaparecen con la edad: la obesidad en la infancia puede dejar una huella a largo plazo. Según la Colon Cancer Foundation, un metaanálisis que incluía a más de 4,7 millones de personas mostró que quienes tenían un índice de masa corporal elevado en etapas tempranas de la vida presentan un mayor riesgo de cáncer colorrectal en la adultez: 39 % más en hombres y 19 % más en mujeres respecto a quienes tenían un IMC normal en la infancia.

Esos cambios en la alimentación también han modificado nuestra microbiota intestinal. Se ha visto que dietas ricas en ultraprocesados reducen la diversidad bacteriana y aumentan la proporción de cepas productoras de metabolitos proinflamatorios. Esto contribuye a enfermedades gastrointestinales como el síndrome de intestino irritable o el SIBO, que hoy parecen casi endémicas en mi generación millennial. Si en una cena de amigos preguntamos quién padece alguno de estos problemas, pocas manos quedarían sin levantarse.

El alcohol y sus efectos invisibles

El segundo gran responsable es el alcohol. Las reuniones millenials suelen girar en torno a una mesa con comida y bebida. Durante años se pensó que una copa de vino era “protectora”, pero hoy sabemos que no existe un nivel seguro de consumo de alcohol: la IARC lo clasifica como carcinógeno del grupo 1, al mismo nivel que el tabaco. El etanol se transforma en acetaldehído, un compuesto que daña el ADN.

Además, los patrones de consumo difieren entre generaciones: mientras que los baby boomers presentan mayor frecuencia de consumo diario, los millennials tienden a beber menos a diario pero con más episodios de binge drinking (atracones de alcohol para emborracharse en poco tiempo), un patrón que implica grandes riesgos. Así lo confirma la Encuesta EDADES 2024 del Ministerio de Sanidad de España, por ejemplo, que evidencia la distinta peligrosidad de los comportamientos entre generaciones.

Consumo de alcohol en los millennials.

Y, por si no fuera suficiente, un estudio reciente de Environmental Science & Technology detectó que muchas cervezas contienen sustancias perfluoroalquiladas (PFAS), conocidas como “químicos eternos” y relacionadas con mayor incidencia de cáncer testicular y renal.

Dormir poco también deja cicatrices

Pero hay más. Dormimos menos y peor que las generaciones anteriores: encuestas recientes muestran que los millennials y la generación Z duermen en promedio entre 30 y 45 minutos menos por noche que los baby boomers, en gran parte por la exposición nocturna a pantallas y redes sociales. Esta luz artificial altera la secreción de melatonina, una hormona con propiedades antioxidantes y reguladora del ciclo celular.

La falta de sueño crónico no solo daña la reparación del ADN, sino que también reduce los efectos protectores de la melatonina frente al cáncer: niveles bajos de esta hormona se han vinculado a una menor capacidad para contrarrestar daño oxidativo del ADN y a una mayor proliferación celular.

Además, la disrupción del ritmo circadiano interfiere con la expresión de genes clave de reparación del ADN, acumulando mutaciones con el tiempo y aumentando el riesgo de procesos tumorales.

El peso invisible del estrés

Probablemente somos la generación con los niveles más altos de cortisol. Cuando la “hormona del estrés” se mantiene elevada durante mucho tiempo, no solo favorece la resistencia a la insulina y la hipertensión, sino que también debilita al sistema inmune.

Las investigaciones revelan que el estrés crónico aumenta la inflamación, dificulta que las defensas eliminen células anormales e incluso puede “despertar” células tumorales latentes. De hecho, estudios en población general han encontrado que las personas con más carga de estrés presentan hasta el doble de riesgo de morir por cáncer frente a quienes lo manejan mejor.




Leer más:
El estrés prolongado podría contribuir de manera directa a la aparición y la progresión del cáncer


El riesgo de la automedicación

Y, por último, las últimas generaciones también están recurriendo cada vez más a la automedicación que las anteriores, lo que plantea nuevos riesgos a corto y largo plazo.

Las cifras de la automedicación en España.
DGT

El uso frecuente de paracetamol se vincula a mayor daño hepático y posible aumento de cáncer de hígado. Los anticonceptivos orales, empleados durante periodos muy largos debido al retraso de la maternidad, elevan ligeramente el riesgo de cáncer de mama y cuello uterino, aunque protegen frente a ovario y endometrio. Además, el uso prolongado de antiácidos y de antibióticos se ha relacionado con un mayor riesgo de cáncer digestivo a través de mecanismos indirectos como compuestos carcinogénicos o disbiosis intestinal.

El futuro de los ‘millennials’

Las proyecciones son realmente preocupantes: se espera que los casos de cáncer podrían crecer desde unos 20 millones en 2022 hasta cerca de 35 millones en 2050, lo que representa un incremento global de casi el 77 %. La tendencia es particularmente marcada en tumores digestivos y ginecológicos, que están apareciendo cada vez con más frecuencia en adultos jóvenes.

Somos la generación de lo inmediato, de la ansiedad y de la pastilla como solución rápida. Pero no todo está perdido: muchos de los factores que hoy nos enferman podemos controlarlos, y adoptar hábitos más saludables puede marcar la diferencia para reducir riesgos y ganar calidad de vida en un futuro no tan lejano.

The Conversation

Lydia Begoña Horndler Gil no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

ref. ¿Qué está pasando con el cáncer en la generación ‘millennial’? – https://theconversation.com/que-esta-pasando-con-el-cancer-en-la-generacion-millennial-266167

‘Los domingos’: ¿por qué el cine de Alauda Ruiz de Azúa atrae tanto consenso?

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Sofía López Hernández, Profesor de Comunicación Audiovisual. Crítico de cine, Universidad Villanueva

Fotograma de _Los domingos_. BTEAM Pictures

El Jurado de la Sección Oficial del pasado Festival de Cine de San Sebastián otorgó su gran premio, la Concha de Oro, a Los domingos, de Alauda Ruiz de Azúa. La directora y guionista comentó, al recibir también el Premio Feroz Zinemaldia –que concede la AICE (Asociación de Informadores Cinematográficos de España)– del certamen, que “tenía mucho vértigo de que la propuesta no se entendiera” porque se trataba de algo arriesgado. Pero se entendió. Consiguió su objetivo: no solo que gustara, sino que se hablara de ella.

Los domingos narra la historia de Ainara, una chica de 17 años que debe decidir su futuro. Su familia le pregunta qué carrera elegirá. Pero la noticia de que su verdadera inquietud es ser monja de clausura les pilla por sorpresa, y esto provoca una crisis familiar.

La recepción ha sido buena por parte de personas que toman diferentes posiciones ante la vida, en este caso, creyentes y no creyentes. Y no solo le ha sucedido con Los domingos. La filmografía de Alauda Ruiz de Azúa lo confirma. Interpeló y gustó su ópera prima, Cinco lobitos (que ganó tres Premios Goya), y el año pasado la serie Querer también triunfó en los premios televisivos y entre la audiencia. Sus historias parecen llegar a todo el mundo, independientemente de sus posiciones ideológicas.

Un enfoque diferente

El éxito radica en el modo de hacer cine de Ruiz de Azua, en los temas que selecciona y, sobre todo, la forma en la que los trata, el estilo. La realizadora vasca elige asuntos cotidianos que, por su complejidad, plantean miradas poliédricas, bien sean las sombras y luces de una madre primeriza, las incomprensiones que recibe una víctima de violencia de género por parte de su familia o las diferentes posiciones vitales de la gente ante una adolescente que quiere ser monja.

En el caso que nos ocupa, arriesga un paso más. Los domingos es un espécimen verdaderamente excepcional en el panorama cinematográfico. Y no es que no haya en el cine español actual películas sobre temas religiosos, que las hay. Pero lo inusual es la seriedad, el rigor y la delicadeza del enfoque que da una realizadora que no tiene fe.

Ruiz de Azúa, en una entrevista hecha durante del Festival de Cine de San Sebastián 2025, me comentó que:

“Es una historia que escuché en la juventud, una chica que tenía vocación religiosa. Me llamó mucho la atención. Tenía curiosidad, fascinación. Me era algo muy ajeno. Después de rodar ‘Cinco Lobitos’, vi que lo podría contar desde el prisma de la familia. Y ahí sí encontré esa pregunta más compleja: ¿cómo la acompaña la familia? ¿O no la acompaña? ¿Cómo se posiciona aquí?”

Una chica vestida de uniforme atiende a algo fuera de campo mientras una mujer que sujeta muchos papeles a su lado la mira.
La actriz Blanca Soroa junto a la directora Alauda Ruiz de Azúa en el rodaje de Los domingos.
BTEAM Pictures

No se trata solo de dar con la tecla, con el tema adecuado, sino también con el enfoque. A Ruiz de Azúa le atrae comenzar los procesos creativos para explorar escenarios que plantean dilemas difíciles de resolver, a ver qué se encuentra. Y lo hace con mucho respeto. Observa, investiga, pregunta, sopesa. Es meticulosa y cuidadosa con los pequeños detalles:

“Cuando me meto en universos desconocidos, intento ser muy rigurosa y muy analítica… casi como un poco antropóloga; me gusta esa perspectiva. Y luego trabajo con las sensaciones y el imaginario que eso me genera. Pero sí, el rigor me parece importante. En el amor al detalle, a lo meticuloso… sacas muchas cosas que hablan de nosotros”.

Así consigue mostrar la complejidad de las posibles miradas sin caer en el maniqueísmo. En Los domingos se plasman las diferentes posturas ante una vocación religiosa: la de la fe de Ainara contrapuesta a la ausencia de fe de su querida tía Maite. El público se puede identificar con la una o con la otra sin sentirse maltratado o ridiculizado.

“Lo que me ha enganchado del cine desde pequeña era intentar entender a otras personas. Ese era el mecanismo que activaba en mí”.

Las trascendencia del día a día

Ruiz de Azúa es gran admiradora del director de cine japonés Yasujirō Ozu, de quien bebe y con quien se identifica por una mirada austera y sutil:

“Intento que lo cotidiano de alguna manera trascienda (…). Supongo que para mí viene de un cine que me ha gustado siempre, de Ozu, las películas a las que se las denomina trascendentes, no tanto en el sentido religioso sino porque, como caen en lo cotidiano, lo elevan a un sitio un poco más profundo. Y me interesa; me parece muy difícil, pero me interesa. Creo que es una sensación que el cine puede evocar muy bien; combina elementos y de repente construye eso”.

Como Ozu, su tema fetiche es la familia. Y plasma lo de cada día; en el caso de su última película: los rituales, las comidas de los domingos, la asistencia al coro del conservatorio o las reuniones de las monjas para rezar varias veces al día. Lo hace mediante una planificación sobria y centrada en los personajes que juega con paralelismos narrativos y con el sentido del humor y la ironía. Las miradas entre los personajes y las conversaciones que mantienen ayudan a experimentar sentimientos que dan qué pensar al espectador.

Una familia sentada alrededor de una mesa.
Fotograma de Los domingos y de una de sus comidas familiares.
BTEAM Pictures

Ruiz de Azúa busca la profundidad y el misterio también a través de la música. Los chicos escuchan temas de Quevedo y Bizarrap, pero cuando están bailando en la discoteca, de modo extradiegético, la audiencia solo oye música sacra. Especialmente relevante se torna el tema “Into my arms”, de Nick Cave, que explora la intersección entre la fe, el amor y la vulnerabilidad humana y que interpreta el coro del colegio. Ainara la canta a ratos, a solas.

En definitiva, el cine de Alauda Ruiz de Azúa respira trascendencia a través de lo cotidiano. Y, al ser tan respetuosa y abierta ante lo que plantea, “no muestra su visión personal. Se abstiene de una interpretación convencional de la realidad”, como diría el crítico y director de cine Paul Schrader.

Este es el secreto de que consiga la conexión con el espectador. Sus historias se quedan en el imaginario y se rumian interiormente; pero también se habla de ellas, se debate sobre lo que cuenta, sin generar combate. Es lo que pretende.

The Conversation

Sofía López Hernández no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.

ref. ‘Los domingos’: ¿por qué el cine de Alauda Ruiz de Azúa atrae tanto consenso? – https://theconversation.com/los-domingos-por-que-el-cine-de-alauda-ruiz-de-azua-atrae-tanto-consenso-268144

Russia turns to an old ally in its war against Ukrainian drones: the weather

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Peter Lee, Professor of Applied Ethics and Director, Security and Risk Research, University of Portsmouth

Russia has long used harsh weather as a defensive ally. During Napoleon’s 1812 invasion, his Grand Army was defeated as winter closed in – the ground became impassable and logistical support to his army collapsed. Similarly, Hitler’s Operation Barbarossa in 1941-42 was halted by heavy rains and deep mud followed by freezing temperatures.

Today, in a different kind of war, Russia is again turning to its old ally, harsh weather – but this time to help in its offensive against Ukraine.

Ukraine’s extensive use of small, low-cost drones has transformed attack and defence strategies across the front lines. The Modern War Institute reports that drones are responsible for around 70% of Russia’s battlefield casualties, although it is unclear which kind of drones are killing in greater numbers: loitering one-way attack drones (known as “kamikaze drones”) or quadcopter first-person view (FPV) drones, armed with small explosives.




Read more:
How drone attacks are changing the rules and the costs of the Ukraine war


Beyond direct strikes, small drones play a vital role in intelligence gathering, surveillance and reconnaissance. They allow Ukrainian units to identify targets and coordinate ground operations with far greater precision. Real-time aerial imagery enables artillery crews to rapidly adjust fire, making bombardments more accurate – and more lethal.

Drones have become the eyes and, increasingly, the hands of Ukraine’s ground forces, increasing their defensive effectiveness against the larger and often better-equipped Russian ground forces. Mass Ukrainian use of FPV and one-way-attack drones has significantly improved defensive effectiveness, blunting larger Russian ground force assaults by using real-time targeting data and precise strikes.

Both sides in the war also regularly deploy electronic jamming, rendering radio-controlled FPV drones inoperable. Russia has, of necessity, become a global leader in this area.

The jamming disrupts the radio links and video feeds that pilots rely on for navigation and targeting. This places Ukraine’s forces, which rely heavily on drones to offset Russia’s advantages, at a considerable disadvantage.

Bad weather and drones

When bad weather combines with electronic interference, the effect is even more damaging. Snow, fog, wind and cold already limit drone endurance and visibility – sharply reducing Ukraine’s technological edge in aerial reconnaissance and precision battlefield drone strikes.

Russia, in contrast, gains relative advantage in such conditions. Its older, heavier ground-based systems – tanks, artillery and armoured vehicles – are more resilient against poor weather. The battlefield becomes a place where Russia’s attritional approach to war grinds out bloody advances.

Small quadcopter drones are light, have limited endurance and are easily influenced by weather. Take the DJI Mavic 3 series, used by many Ukrainian units for frontline reconnaissance. It is only effective in temperatures between –10°C and +40 °C and winds below about 12 metres per second. Strong gusts or freezing weather can quickly push this small drone off course.

More advanced Ukrainian systems, such as the winged Shark uncrewed aerial system, can operate from –15 °C to +45 °C and withstand winds up to 20 metres per second. Yet even these are restricted to dry conditions: rain or snow can ground them.

In cold conditions, batteries drain more quickly, cutting both flight time and operational range. Icing can ground large numbers of drones if it changes the characteristics of the quadcopter propellers – ice makes propeller blades thicker, heavier and less aerodynamic, reducing performance.

Winged drones can suffer from wing-tip icing, which changes their flight characteristics – reducing lift, increasing drag and the danger of stalling, and degrading control. Fog and snow also reduce visibility, limiting the ability to identify or track targets.

Russian offensive

In October 2025, Russia timed several large ground assaults to coincide with poor weather. This approach exploited conditions that significantly reduced Ukraine’s ability to defend itself with drones. Fog, rain and cloud cover made small reconnaissance drones unreliable or even unflyable. Visibility dropped so low that attacks on individual soldiers become far less effective.

In theory, Ukraine’s allies can offset some of this loss through satellite intelligence. US reconnaissance satellites can still gather valuable information on cloudy days by using synthetic aperture radar to detect ground movements. Yet even these advanced systems cannot see visually through thick cloud banks or heavy rainstorms.

Historically, Russia’s severe weather served a defensive purpose, turning back invading armies from Napoleon to Hitler. In the present war, however, Russia is using the same harsh climate offensively, turning natural concealment into a tactical advantage as it advances across Ukrainian ground.

Winter has not yet arrived, but Ukrainian and Russian military planners will be watching the weather. Ukraine’s vaunted ability to innovate and respond to Russian tactics will be tested even further in the months ahead.

The Conversation

Peter Lee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Russia turns to an old ally in its war against Ukrainian drones: the weather – https://theconversation.com/russia-turns-to-an-old-ally-in-its-war-against-ukrainian-drones-the-weather-268019

Sanctions on Russia have failed to stop the war so far – will Trump’s latest package be any different?

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Sergey V. Popov, Senior Lecturer in Economics, Cardiff University

Donald Trump has finally decided to hit Russia with sanctions – the first package he has imposed since he came back to the White House in January.

The sanctions target Rosneft and Lukoil, Russia’s two largest oil companies, as a retaliation for Vladimir Putin’s refusal to agree to a ceasefire in Ukraine. The announcement came in the wake of the decision to call off a planned summit between the two leaders in Budapest next month.

The US treasury secretary, Scott Bessent, said in a statement: “We encourage our allies to join us in and adhere to these sanctions.” In fact the EU has imposed 19 rounds of sanctions against Russia since the full-scale invasion in 2022.

The UK government has passed sanctions which it estimates have cost Russia more than £28 billion since the start of the war. And the Biden administration also repeatedly imposed sanctions on Russia after the invasion.

In March 2022, I wrote a piece for The Conversation explaining why I thought the sanctions imposed on Russia in the aftermath of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine wouldn’t topple Putin. Sanctions often fail to achieve their goals the Russian economy has specifically been set up to resist western sanctions.

Three years on, Russia’s land grab continues to ravage Ukraine, albeit clearly with much less success than expected by Russia’s generals. A lot of this resistance is due to Ukrainian military heroism and creativity, and a lot of it due to humanitarian and military assistance from EU, the US and other allies. But how much of it was due to sanctions is open to debate.

Russia’s economy is now focused on waging war. And even in these days of drone combat, to wage war you needs soldiers. The amounts paid to people joining up in Russia are unprecedented. Not only is their enlistment pay about the price of a decent apartment in a regional capital, but any debt they hold up to 10 million rubles (£76,500) is wiped out.

Their salary is not a large amount by western standards – a policeman in New York earns a comparable amount in a year. But when the alternative in Russia is being a security guard for £400 per month, it is clear why many people who see no future – especially convicts who are also given pardons – enlist in the Russian armed forces.

Reservists and volunteers mean that Russia is able to maintain its fighting force. While the sanctions clearly hurt Russia’s economy, having sufficient soldiers is priority number one – and this is still largely unaffected.

Russia is managing to pay for the war, sanctions or no sanctions, by passing on the cost to the public. VAT is forecast to rise from 20% to 22% in 2026 and the revenue threshold under which businesses will be required to pay will come down. This will lower investment into things like barber shops, but investment in military production will not be affected.

The sanctions do hurt the Russian economy – lifting sanctions is always the most important demand anytime Russia is consulted about a ceasefire – but not so much that the war economy is slowing down.

Finding loopholes

Thus far, Russia has managed to circumvent sanctions. Europe still buys large quantities of oil and gas from Russia (more than it has given Ukraine in aid, in fact). Moscow has also exported massive amounts to India and China, but the quantities are expected to fall sharply as a result of the US sanctions.

Earlier this year, the US president also announced a massive tariff hike on Indian exports in retaliation for India buying Russian energy supplies.

All of this will make the war more expensive – but it will not stop it. For a start, Russia controls a big “shadow fleet” of ships that have been transporting its oil and other banned goods such as military equipment and stolen Ukrainian grain. The EU has imposed port bans on 117 ships believed to be part of this shadow fleet. But experience suggests that this is by no means a foolproof way of preventing them from operating.

Death by 1,000 cuts

It’s tempting to imagine sanctions as trying to cause death by 1,000 cuts. The EU has made 19 cuts, so we are still 981 away – 980 with Trump’s latest move.

The west could have done more and it could have done it sooner. It could have acted as early as 2008 when Russia signalled its aggressive intent by invading Georgia. It could have imposed more effective sanctions after Russia annexed Crimea and parts of eastern Ukraine in 2014.

In any case, these sanctions are designed against a western democracy, if they were imposed against the US or the UK, they would have changed governments. In western democracies governments have power at the discretion of the voters who can take these mandates back. Sanctions against autocracies, where power is not in the hands of the people, need to be different.

The good news is that the Trump administration is finally doing something besides putting out the red carpet for Putin. There is hope.

The Conversation

Sergey V. Popov does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Sanctions on Russia have failed to stop the war so far – will Trump’s latest package be any different? – https://theconversation.com/sanctions-on-russia-have-failed-to-stop-the-war-so-far-will-trumps-latest-package-be-any-different-268228

Companies now own more than $100 billion in bitcoin – but the shine may be wearing off crypto treasury companies

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Gemma Ware, Host, The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The Conversation

Mehaniq/Shutterstock

One American company called Strategy owns more than 3% of all bitcoin in existence. Its executive chairman, Michael Saylor, is the pioneer of a new business model where publicly listed companies buy cryptocurrency assets to hold on their balance sheet.

Strategy, formerly called MicroStrategy, first bought US$250 million (£187 million) worth of bitcoin in mid-2020 during the depths of the COVID economic slump. As it continued to buy bitcoin, its share price soared, and it kept buying. As of October 2025, Strategy held 640,418 bitcoin, worth around $70 billion.

In the years since, more than 100 other public companies have followed Saylor’s lead and become bitcoin treasury companies, together holding more than $114 billion of bitcoin. There’s been a new rush into crypto treasury assets in 2025 following the general crypto enthusiasm of the new Trump administration.

But holding bitcoin assets also comes with some big risks, particularly given the volatility of cryptocurrency prices, and the share prices of some of these companies are now coming under pressure.

In this episode of The Conversation Weekly podcast, we speak to Larisa Yarovaya, director of the centre for digital finance at the University of Southampton, about whether bitcoin treasury companies are the future of corporate finance, or another speculative bubble waiting to burst.

This episode of The Conversation Weekly was written and produced by Katie Flood, Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware. Mixing and sound design by Michelle Macklem and theme music by Neeta Sarl.

Newsclips in this episode from CBC News, Bloomberg Television, Yahoo Finance, Altcoin Daily, Strategy and CNBC Television.

Listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our RSS feed or find out how else to listen here. A transcript of this episode is available on Apple Podcasts or Spotify.

The Conversation

Larisa Yarovaya is affiliated with the British Blockchain Association.

ref. Companies now own more than $100 billion in bitcoin – but the shine may be wearing off crypto treasury companies – https://theconversation.com/companies-now-own-more-than-100-billion-in-bitcoin-but-the-shine-may-be-wearing-off-crypto-treasury-companies-268127

Ancient antelope teeth offer surprise insights into how early humans lived

Source: The Conversation – Africa (2) – By Megan Malherbe, Research Assistant Scientific Collection Institute of Evolutionary Medicine Faculty of Science, University of Zurich

Understanding what the environment looked like millions of years ago is essential for piecing together how our earliest ancestors lived and survived. Habitat shapes everything, from what food was available, to where water could be found, to how predators and prey interacted.

For decades, scientists studying South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind have tried to reconstruct the landscape in which species like Australopithecus sediba, Paranthropus robustus and Homo naledi once lived. These were hominins that inhabited the region between roughly 2.5 million and 0.25 million years ago. The Cradle of Humankind is a Unesco world heritage site that has remained the single richest source of early human fossils for over 90 years.

A long-standing idea has been that the Cradle experienced a dramatic environmental change around 1.7 million years ago: a shift from woodlands to open grasslands. This shift likely happened as global climates became cooler and drier, with stronger seasonal patterns. These broader changes, linked to the expansion of polar ice sheets and shifts in atmospheric circulation, reduced the availability of year-round rainfall in southern Africa.

Trees and shrubs, which depend on consistent moisture, gave way to hardy grasses better suited to long dry seasons and intense sunlight. In the woodlands, dense trees and shrubs had once provided leafy vegetation for browsing animals. As the landscape opened up, short grasses became dominant, supporting grazing animals.

This supposed sudden transformation was thought to have reshaped the setting in which early humans evolved, possibly influencing their diets, mobility and survival strategies.

But was there really such a sudden switch?

I’m a palaeoecologist who’s part of a team that specialises in reconstructing ancient environments by studying fossil animals. We set out to test the “sudden switch” idea, using a large dataset of fossil antelope teeth. Antelopes (bovids) are particularly useful for reconstructing past environments in Africa: they are abundant in the fossil record, they occupy a wide range of habitats today as well as in the past, and their teeth preserve clear signals of what they ate.

We examined more than 600 fossil teeth from seven well-dated sites in the Cradle, covering a broad time span from 3.2 million to 1.3 million years ago.

The results of our study were striking. Across all seven sites, spanning nearly two million years, the antelopes show consistently strong grazing signals. Grass-eating was dominant throughout the period, challenging the old model of a sudden woodland-to-grassland shift 1.7 million years ago. Instead, the evidence points to a more stable but varied landscape: a mosaic environment. Some fossil species even showed different feeding strategies from their modern relatives, highlighting that ancient antelopes adapted to past conditions in distinct ways.

This tells us more about the world early humans evolved in – but it also reminds us to be cautious. Fossil animals didn’t always behave like their modern relatives, so drawing direct parallels risks oversimplifying the past.

Dating the sites

To interpret the fossils in context, we needed to be sure of when each site formed. Previous work often relied on broad age estimates based on the types of animals found in each sediment layer – a method called biochronology – which could only give a rough idea of when different species lived. This made it difficult to line up fossils from the many cave sites in the Cradle on a reliable timeline. Thanks to recent improvements in radiometric dating, a method that finds the precise age of rocks by measuring how radioactive elements change into other elements over time, the chronology of the Cradle has been refined.

The layers of calcite deposited in caves (known as flowstones) were recently shown by geochronologists to have formed at the same time across multiple sites, providing a regional framework for the whole area. This means researchers can now compare fossils from different caves knowing they represent the same windows of time. It’s a huge step forward in testing whether environmental shifts were truly regional events.

Reading diets from teeth

The method used in this study is called dental mesowear analysis. It records the long-term impact of diet on the tooth surfaces of herbivores throughout their life. In simple terms, different diets wear teeth in different ways:

  • browsers (like kudu or giraffes), which eat leaves and twigs, usually have sharper cusps, because their food causes less wear on the teeth

  • grazers (like wildebeest or zebra), which feed mostly on grasses rich in silica and often covered in grit, develop blunter cusps from heavy tooth grinding

  • mixed feeders show intermediate wear, reflecting generalist behaviour and a diet that shifts with seasons or local vegetation.

By scoring cusp shape and relief on each fossil tooth, we assessed whether past populations leaned more towards browsing or grazing.

The results showed there was a mix of different habitats in this environment at that time: open grassy areas mixed with patches of trees and shrubs. This would have created a patchwork of ecological niches, offering early humans a diverse range of resources.

Some sites – including the famous Sterkfontein Caves, home to one of the most complete early hominin skulls ever found, “Mrs Ples” – showed a bimodal pattern in tooth wear, meaning that even within the same community, some antelopes were grazing while others were browsing. This suggests that vegetation structure shifted locally or seasonally, and that animals adapted their diets accordingly. They switched between food sources as conditions changed.




Read more:
Elephant teeth: how they evolved to cope with climate change-driven dietary shifts


Lessons from antelope diets

One of the most important findings is that some fossil antelopes fed very differently than their modern relatives. For example, certain groups that today are almost exclusively browsers were much more grass-focused in the Cradle fossil record. Others showed unexpected flexibility, with individuals of the same tribe in the same site adopting different strategies.

This has two key implications.

We cannot always rely on modern analogies. Assuming extinct animals behaved like their living relatives can be misleading, since the fossil record shows surprising shifts in diet. This means reconstructions based only on which species were present may give the wrong impression or oversimplify the reality.

Flexibility was crucial. The fact that antelopes could switch between grazing and browsing indicates that the Cradle’s environment was dynamic, and that survival often depended on adaptability. This echoes what we know about early humans, who also seem to have thrived by exploiting a wide range of resources.

The Conversation

Megan Malherbe is affiliated with the Institute of Evolutionary Medicine at the University of Zurich, and the Human Evolution Research Institute at the University of Cape Town.

ref. Ancient antelope teeth offer surprise insights into how early humans lived – https://theconversation.com/ancient-antelope-teeth-offer-surprise-insights-into-how-early-humans-lived-267169

Japan’s sumo association turns 100 – but the sport’s rituals have a much older role shaping ideas about the country

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Jessamyn R. Abel, Professor of Asian Studies and History, Penn State

Sumo wrestlers Daieisho and Roga compete in a Grand Sumo Tournament bout at the Royal Albert Hall in London on Oct. 19, 2025. AP Photo/Frank Augstein

A visitor to Japan who wanders into a sumo tournament might be forgiven for thinking they had intruded upon a religious ceremony.

Tournaments begin with a line of burly men wearing little more than elaborately decorated aprons walking in a line onto a raised earthen stage. Their names are called as they circle around a ring made of partially buried bales of rice straw. Turning toward the center, they clap, lift their aprons, raise their arms upward, and then exit without a word.

Then two of those men face each other, crouching, clapping their hands together and stomping on the ground. They pause repeatedly to rinse their mouths with water and toss salt into the ring.

Overseeing their movements is a man outfitted in a colorful kimono and a black hat resembling that of a Shinto priest and holding a tasseled fan. After a subtle gesture with his fan, they finally grapple – and only then would the uninformed observer realize that the performance was an athletic event.

Every sport has its rituals, from the All Blacks rugby team’s pregame haka to the polite handshake between victor and vanquished over the tennis court net. Some, like many sumo rituals, have roots in religious practices. A few hundred years ago, competitions were frequently held at temples and shrines as part of festivals.

Two men in white robes bow, standing on the side of a dirt ring, as another man in white robes sits between them.
Sumo referees perform the Shinto ritual to purify and bless the ring ahead of a tournament at the Royal Albert Hall in London on Oct. 15, 2025.
AP Photo/Frank Augstein

Today, sumo is a modern sport with records, rules and a governing institution that celebrated its 100th anniversary in October 2025. But those religious roots are still visible. The salt the wrestlers throw, for example, is a purifying element. The clapping is a way of drawing the attention of the gods.

As a historian of modern Japan and a scholar of sports and diplomacy, I have seen many ways in which sports are much more than “just a game.” Sport rituals are an important part of those wider meanings. In fact, sumo and its rituals have helped shape foreign perceptions of Japan for at least 170 years.

First impressions

The first sumo tournament known to have been observed by American spectators was held in March 1854, in honor of a treaty establishing diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan. Described in the personal journal kept by Commodore Matthew Perry, the leader of the mission to Japan, the exhibition before gawking American sailors seemed designed to impress.

Before the matches began, the athletes put on a performance of strength, loading the American ships with a gift of some 200 bales of rice from the Japanese government. Perry describes how two dozen huge men, “naked with the exception of a narrow girdle around the loins,” paraded before the American crew before getting to work, each shouldering two 135-pound bales.

If the actual sumo competition was intended to inspire appreciation of Japanese culture, it backfired. Perry’s descriptions of the wrestlers were full of unflattering animal metaphors. He wrote that they resembled “stall-fed bulls” more than human beings and made noises like “dogs in combat.”

At the time, sports as we know them today were just emerging in England and the United States. Some of the earliest rules of soccer were recorded in the 1840s, and baseball’s growing popularity led to the development of professional leagues after the U.S. Civil War.

With this American idea of sports in Perry’s mind, the sumo tournament did not impress him. He called the bouts a “farce” and judged the wrestlers’ physique as one that “to our ideas of athletic qualities would seem to incapacitate him from any violent exercise.”

An illustration in muted colors shows two large men wrestling on a platform between red posts, as a large audience watches.
An illustration of an 1846 sumo tournament by Utagawa Kunisada.
Chunichi.co.jp/Wikimedia Commons

In the mid-19th century, Japan was relatively isolated from the Western world. Most Americans knew almost nothing about the country and considered it backward, even barbaric. The two cultures’ differing ideas of sports meant that sumo only added to American views of Japan as strange and uncivilized.

A competing sport

Sports diplomacy had a more positive impact on American views of Japan in the early 20th century, thanks to a different game: baseball.

After the fall of the shogunate in 1868, the new Japanese government – made up of oligarchs ruling in the name of the Meiji Emperor – employed Americans to help implement reforms. Some of them brought along America’s pastime, which became very popular within a few decades.

By the 1910s and ‘20s, Japanese college teams were regularly traveling to the U.S., where newspapers praised their skills and their sportsmanship.

A black and white photo shows two rows of men in suits posing outside a large white building.
The Osaka Mairuchi baseball team from Japan visits the U.S. White House in 1925.
National Photo Company Collection/Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

Some of the rituals in a Japanese baseball game, like a ceremonial first pitch, were familiar to American observers. Others, like a team bow toward the umpire, were quite a contrast, but struck them as superior to the rowdiness of American players and fans.

At the time, Japan’s Westernizing reforms and recent military victories over China and Russia had already improved Americans’ impressions of the country. Former baseball player Harry Kingman, writing about a game he watched during a 1927 stint coaching a Tokyo college team, explained the Japanese turn toward baseball as part of the nation’s modernization.

Sumo, however, continued to be the most popular sport in Japan until the 1990s, when baseball took that title. But the initial popularity of this American import caused some anxiety within the sumo world: A foreign game seemed to be taking over and stealing sumo’s fans.

Amid these changes, professional sumo’s governing institutions, which were divided into competing associations based in Tokyo and Osaka, joined forces. They officially unified in 1925 as the organization that would become today’s Japan Sumo Association.

Can sumo be cool?

Japanese popular culture now captivates people around the world. In 2002, journalist Douglas McGray wrote about the soft power conferred by what he called the nation’s “gross national cool.” But he noted sumo as an exception, blaming its leadership’s insular attitudes.

Perhaps sumo’s biggest hurdle to building an international fan base is its attitude toward foreigners. Immigration is controversial in Japan. The population is relatively homogeneous, and barriers to naturalization are high.

A man in a blue suit shakes hands with a much larger man in a gray suit.
Thomas Foley, then the U.S. ambassador to Japan, presents sumo grand champion Akebono with a letter of appreciation from Secretary of State Colin Powell in 2001.
AP Photo/Tsugufumi Matsumoto

In contrast to sports like baseball, soccer and rugby, where “imported” players abound, there are few foreign sumo wrestlers, and their success seems to rankle. In 1993, a Hawaiian named Akebono became the first foreigner to reach the top rank of “yokozuna,” sparking a temporary hold on recruiting sumo wrestlers from outside Japan.

Constraints were gradually softened, and the number of non-Japanese professional wrestlers has been rising. They still represent a small minority, but their success often sparks discussions about the place of foreigners in the sport.

Though sumo has gained some traction outside of Japan, its rituals still occasionally create negative impressions of Japanese culture. At a tournament in 2018, for example, a local official collapsed while giving a speech. Female medics who rushed to help him were told to leave the sumo ring, considered a sacred space polluted by a woman’s presence. The chairman of the Japan Sumo Association later apologized, but the incident brought criticism that the sumo world was clinging to anachronistic traditions.

Sumo continues to change. A 1926 Tokyo government ban on women’s sumo is no longer in force, and there are now some female wrestlers in amateur clubs. But women are still barred from professional competition.

Tournaments are certainly popular with tourists, but they generally go for a one-time experience. One might ask if sumo can change enough to play an effective role in Japan’s sports diplomacy. The answer depends on whether sumo leaders are more interested in maintaining the sport’s Japanese identity or building global connections.

The Conversation

Jessamyn R. Abel has received funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Japan Foundation, the Northeast Asian Council of the Association for Asian Studies, and the McCourtney Institute for Democracy at Penn State University. She is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the Association for Asian Studies.

ref. Japan’s sumo association turns 100 – but the sport’s rituals have a much older role shaping ideas about the country – https://theconversation.com/japans-sumo-association-turns-100-but-the-sports-rituals-have-a-much-older-role-shaping-ideas-about-the-country-263093

Rift Valley fever: what it is, how it spreads and how to stop it

Source: The Conversation – Africa (2) – By Marc Souris, chercheur, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD)

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes that mainly affects livestock. It can also infect humans. While most human cases remain mild, it can cause death. The disease causes heavy economic and health losses for livestock farmers.

As a researcher, I have contributed to several studies on this mosquito-borne virus.

So, what exactly is Rift Valley fever, how it is treated, and how it can be controlled?

What is Rift Valley fever?

Rift Valley fever is a zoonosis (a disease affecting animals that can be transmitted to humans). It is caused by the RVF virus, a phlebovirus from the Phenuiviridae family (order Bunyavirales). The disease primarily affects domestic animals, mainly cattle, sheep and goats, but also camelids and other small ruminants. It can occasionally infect humans.

In animals, the disease causes high morbidity: reduced milk production, high newborn mortality, mass abortions in pregnant females, and death in 10% to 20% of cases. This leads to serious economic losses for farmers.

Most people who get Rift Valley fever have no symptoms or just flu-like syndrome. But in a few people, it can become very serious, causing complications such as eye disorders, meningoencephalitis (inflammation of the brain), or hemorrhagic fever. The fatality rate among infected people is around 1%.

How it’s transmitted

In animals, the disease is mainly spread through bites from infected mosquitoes. At least 50 mosquito species can transmit the Rift Valley fever virus, including Aedes, Culex, Anopheles and Mansonia species. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on animals carrying the virus in their blood, then transmit it to other animals through their bites. In Aedes mosquitoes, vertical transmission – from infected females to their eggs – is also possible, allowing the virus to survive in the environment.

For humans, the most common way to get infected is through direct contact with the blood or organs of an infected animal. This often happens during veterinary work, slaughtering, or butchering.

While it is also possible for human to get the virus from a mosquito bite, this is not common. No human-to-human transmission has been observed to date.

The origins and spread

A serious outbreak of Rift Valley fever began to be reported in Senegal in late September 2025. The west African country has been battling to control it.

The disease was first discovered in 1931 in the Rift Valley in Kenya in east Africa, during a human epidemic of 200 cases. The virus itself was isolated and identified in 1944 in neighbouring Uganda.

Since then, numerous outbreaks of the disease have been reported in Africa: in Egypt (1977), Madagascar (1990, 2021), Kenya (1997, 1998), in Somalia (1998), in Tanzania (1998), the Comoros (2007-2008) and Mayotte (2018-2019).

In west Africa, the main epidemics affected Mauritania (1987, 1993, 1998, 2003, 2010, 2012), Senegal (1987, 2013-2014) and Niger (2016).

Its spread into the Sahel and west African regions has been largely driven by the movement of livestock, and by environmental factors.

To date, around 30 countries have reported animal and/or human cases in the form of outbreaks or epidemics.

Why and how outbreaks occur

Rift Valley fever reemerges in cyclical patterns, with major outbreaks occurring in Africa every five to 15 years. The trigger for these outbreaks is closely linked to specific environmental conditions, like periods of heavy rainfall that create ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes.

In east Africa, epidemics typically follow periods of exceptionally heavy rainfall or flooding in normally dry regions. For instance, the severe outbreaks of 1998-1999 were directly linked to intense rains caused by the El Niño climate phenomenon.




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In the Sahel region, the relationship with rainfall is less predictable. Outbreaks can appear in unexpected, poorly monitored areas, and genetic analysis of viruses in Mauritania suggests that new strains can be introduced directly from other regions.

A key mystery is how the virus persists in the environment between these major outbreaks. It is believed to survive in the environment within a “wild reservoir” of animals – such as certain antelopes, deer, and possibly even reptiles – though this reservoir has not yet been fully identified.

Once an initial outbreak occurs, the virus can spread to new areas. This happens through the movement of infected livestock, the accidental transport of infected mosquitoes (for example, in vehicles or cargo), and when environmental conditions are conducive.

Clinical symptoms and treatments

Adult cattle and sheep may show nasal discharge, excessive salivation, loss of appetite, weakness, diarrhoea.

In humans, after an incubation period of two to six days, most infections are asymptomatic or mild, with flu-like symptoms lasting four to seven days. People who recover from the infection typically gain natural immunity.




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However, in a small percentage of individuals, the disease can take a severe turn:

  • Eye lesions affect up to 10% of symptomatic cases. They appear one to three weeks after initial symptoms and can heal on their own or lead to permanent blindness.

  • Meningoencephalitis (inflammation of the brain and meninges) occurs in 2%-4% of symptomatic cases, one to four weeks after symptom onset. Mortality is low, but neurological after-effects are common.

  • Hemorrhagic fever (diseases that cause fever and bleeding due to damage to the blood vessels) occurs in less than 1% of symptomatic cases, usually two to four days after symptoms begin. About half of these patients die within three to six days.

There is no specific treatment for severe cases of Rift Valley fever in humans.

Surveillance, prevention and control

Veterinary surveillance with immediate reporting and monitoring of infection in animals is essential to control the disease. During outbreaks, controlled culling of infected animals and strict restrictions on the movement of livestock are the most effective ways to slow virus spread.




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As with all mosquito-borne viral diseases, controlling vector populations is an effective preventive measure, though it is challenging, especially in rural areas.

To prevent new outbreaks, animals in endemic regions can be vaccinated in advance. A modified live virus vaccine provides long-term immunity after a single dose, but it is not recommended for pregnant females because it can cause abortions. An inactivated virus vaccine is also available, it avoids these side effects, but it requires several doses to provide adequate protection.

Threat, vulnerabilities and health risks

People at highest risk of infection include livestock farmers, abattoir workers and veterinarians. An inactivated vaccine for human has been developed. But it is not licensed yet and has only been used experimentally.

Raising awareness of risk factors is the only effective way to reduce human infections during outbreaks. Key risk factors include:

  • handling sick animals or their tissues during farming and slaughter

  • consuming fresh blood, raw milk, or meat

  • mosquito bites.

It is important to follow basic health precautions when Rift Valley fever appears. Wash your hands regularly. Wear protective gear when handling animals or during slaughter. Always cook animal products such as blood, meat and milk thoroughly. Use mosquito nets or repellents consistently.

The Conversation

Marc Souris receives funding from ANR (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, France) and IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le développement).

ref. Rift Valley fever: what it is, how it spreads and how to stop it – https://theconversation.com/rift-valley-fever-what-it-is-how-it-spreads-and-how-to-stop-it-267309