Suplemento cultural: la lluvia de Jane Austen

Source: The Conversation – (in Spanish) – By Claudia Lorenzo Rubiera, Editora de Cultura, The Conversation

Jane Bennet, en la adaptación cinematográfica de ‘Orgullo y prejuicio’, estornudando después de verse sorprendida por una tormenta. IMDB

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Soy asturiana. Lo digo para que se entienda que, viniendo de donde vengo, la lluvia me ha pillado en más de una ocasión sin paraguas y me ha calado hasta los huesos. Y aquí sigo.

Por eso, cuando comencé a leer las novelas de Jane Austen no entendía el jaleo que se montaba cada vez que una de las protagonistas se iba a pasear, se veía sorprendida por las nubes, y volvía a casa empapada flirteando con el riesgo de morir por un resfriado. Marianne Dashwood en Sentido y sensibilidad, una dramática adorable, es el mejor ejemplo de esto.

Con el tiempo aprendí que una mojadura en los años 90 o 2000 no era lo mismo que una a principios del siglo XIX. Así lo cuenta Ana Fernández Mosquera. También deja caer que, no obstante, aunque Austen estuviese interesada en temas sanitarios, era todavía más partidaria de utilizarlos como giros narrativos. Porque si Jane Bennet no se hubiese puesto malísima en casa de Charles Bingley (después de una tormenta), Elizabeth no hubiese tenido que acudir a socorrerla y, de paso, intimar con el desagradable pero tentador señor Darcy.

Si lee esto desde algún sitio tórrido, me pareció un bonito detalle empezar hablando de frío, agua y bajas temperaturas, aunque solo fuese para engañar a la mente.

Decidir qué es bello

Confesaré que la primera vez que Lara López Millán me expuso el tema de la belleza en las imágenes de las redes sociales, me pareció que era algo interesante, sí, pero que afectaba a un puñado de gente, tal vez numeroso pero no abrumador.

Sin embargo, estaba equivocada. Como ella bien explica, por un “sesgo de confirmación óptico”, en base a lo que hemos elegido en determinados momentos, un algoritmo selecciona las imágenes que vamos a recibir en redes, las que cree que nos van a gustar, determinando por nosotros qué vamos a considerar bello.

Y aunque parece que solo hablamos de fotografías de Pinterest, el subtexto es mucho más importante y existencial. Porque si alguien comienza a decidir por nosotros qué es bello y qué no, sin que nos demos cuenta, se abre la puerta a que el mundo se acabe volviendo un lugar más homogéneo y claustrofóbico.

Graciela Iturbide, mirar con dignidad

Este año Graciela Iturbide ha sido galardonada con el Premio Princesa de Asturias de las Artes, que recogerá en Oviedo en otoño.

Y coincidiendo con este reconocimiento, la Fundación Casa de México en España ha inaugurado una retrospectiva de la fotógrafa mexicana en Madrid que estará abierta hasta septiembre y que muestra algunas de sus imágenes más representativas.

A través de sus ojos, como nos cuenta Francisco Quirarte, Iturbide convence de que mirar “es un acto de amor y resistencia”.

Escuchar un slow with you tonight

Desde hace unos años se ha puesto de moda el movimiento slow food, como reacción a la comida rápida y, en general, a la aceleración del mundo en el que vivimos.

Nosotros, en el verano de 2024, nos dimos a la slow music, que no es música lenta para bailar agarrao’ (como diría Luis Eduardo Aute), sino una propuesta para seleccionar álbumes de música de diferentes géneros que merezca la pena escuchar sin hacer nada más: ni las tareas de casa, ni el trabajo, ni ejercicio ni nada.

La idea acabó con una serie ecléctica de discos para reproducir, sentarse (permitimos también pasear lentamente) y atender.

La ropa que nos define

Como ovetense que soy (para concretar todavía más la asturianía ya anunciada), me he pasado las últimas semanas viendo a gente pasear por la calle con diferentes camisetas del equipo de fútbol del Real Oviedo (para quien no sepa de qué hablo, hemos subido a Primera división después de 24 años).

Entre lo que hacían mis conciudadanos y el blokecore, la tendencia de vestir, por puro gusto estético, camisetas de fútbol, hay una finísima línea (¿ese señor que se hace una foto delante de la Torre Eiffel con vaqueros y camiseta del Liverpool es un red o sigue la moda?). Y esa línea, como explica Sandra Bravo, es tanto estética como cultural.

Hablando de ropa, las más afortunadas estarán leyendo esto no con camiseta y pantalones sino al lado del mar y protegidas bajo una sombrilla (el cuidado ante todo), vestidas con un bikini… “Bikini”, una interesante palabra compuesta por bi-, que significa dos, y -kini, que significa… nada.

Rosalía Cotelo García disecciona la etimología de la prenda veraniega por excelencia y la de toda una familia de palabras cuya raíz nos hemos inventado.

Y cerramos la sección de moda con un ramillete de prendas que ahora nos son desconocidas pero que eran habituales en los escenarios teatrales del Siglo de Oro.

The Conversation

ref. Suplemento cultural: la lluvia de Jane Austen – https://theconversation.com/suplemento-cultural-la-lluvia-de-jane-austen-262534

Nos GPS ont besoin de voir les trous noirs pour fonctionner, mais le wifi et les téléphones portables brouillent leur détection

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Lucia McCallum, Senior Scientist in Geodesy, University of Tasmania

Certains trous noirs servent de points de repère à la géodésie pour localiser précisément la Terre dans l’espace. ESA/Hubble/L. Calçada (ESO), CC BY

La pollution électromagnétique a des conséquences inattendues. Par exemple, l’encombrement du spectre radioélectrique complique le travail des radiotélescopes. Ce que l’on sait rarement, c’est que ces télescopes ne servent pas seulement à faire de la recherche en astronomie : ils sont indispensables à certains services essentiels à notre civilisation… le GPS, par exemple !


Les scientifiques qui mesurent avec précision la position de la Terre sont aujourd’hui confrontés à un problème de taille. Leurs données sont essentielles au fonctionnement des satellites utilisés pour la navigation, pour les télécommunications et pour l’observation de la planète. Ce que l’on sait moins, c’est que ces mesures – issues d’une discipline appelée « géodésie » – dépendent du suivi de trous noirs situés dans des galaxies lointaines.

Le problème, c’est que, pour suivre ces trous noirs, les scientifiques ont besoin d’utiliser des bandes de fréquences spécifiques sur le spectre radioélectrique. Et avec la montée en puissance du wifi, des téléphones portables et d’Internet par satellite, il y a un embouteillage sur ces fameuses bandes de fréquence.

Pourquoi avons-nous besoin des trous noirs ?

Les satellites et les services qu’ils fournissent sont devenus essentiels à la vie moderne. De la navigation ultraprécise sur nos téléphones au suivi du changement climatique, en passant par la gestion des chaînes logistiques mondiales, le fonctionnement des réseaux électriques ou des transactions bancaires en ligne, notre civilisation ne peut pas se passer de ces compagnons en orbite.

Mais pour utiliser les satellites, il faut savoir précisément où ils se trouvent à tout moment. Leur positionnement repose sur ce qu’on appelle la « chaîne d’approvisionnement géodésique mondiale ».

Cette chaîne commence par l’établissement d’un référentiel de coordonnées stable sur lequel baser toutes les autres mesures. Comme les satellites se déplacent sans cesse autour de la Terre, que la Terre elle-même tourne autour du Soleil, et que le Soleil se déplace dans la galaxie, ce référentiel doit être soigneusement calibré à partir d’objets externes relativement fixes.

Or les meilleurs points d’ancrage que l’on connaisse sont les trous noirs, situés au cœur de galaxies lointaines, qui émettent des jets de rayonnement en dévorant des étoiles et du gaz.

Grâce à une technique appelée « interférométrie à très longue base », les scientifiques peuvent relier un réseau de radiotélescopes pour capter leurs signaux et pour dissocier les mouvements de rotation ou d’oscillation de la Terre de ceux des satellites.

Le rôle important des ondes radio

En effet, les radiotélescopes permettent de détecter les ondes radio émises par les trous noirs. Celles-ci traversent l’atmosphère sans difficulté, de jour comme de nuit et par tous les temps.

Mais ces ondes radio sont également utilisées pour les communications terrestres – wifi, téléphonie mobile, etc. L’utilisation des différentes fréquences est strictement encadrée, et quelques bandes étroites seulement sont réservées à l’astronomie radio.

Dans les décennies passées, toutes les bandes étaient encore peu usitées, et les scientifiques n’hésitaient pas à empiéter sur celles non réservées pour mieux capter les signaux des trous noirs… Mais aujourd’hui, si on souhaite que la géodésie atteigne la précision requise par nos technologies, on ne peut plus se contenter des bandes réservées à l’astronomie.

Des usages concurrents

Ces dernières années, la pollution électromagnétique d’origine humaine a explosé. Lorsque le wifi et la téléphonie mobile se sont développés, les scientifiques ont dû se rabattre sur des fréquences plus élevées.

Mais les bandes libres se font rares. Six générations de téléphonie mobile, chacune occupant une nouvelle fréquence, encombrent désormais le spectre, sans compter les milliers de satellites qui envoient directement des connexions Internet vers la Terre.

Aujourd’hui, la multitude de signaux est souvent trop puissante pour que les observatoires géodésiques puissent distinguer les très faibles signaux en provenance des trous noirs – ce qui menace, à terme, le fonctionnement de nombreux services satellitaires.

Que peut-on faire ?

Pour continuer à fonctionner à l’avenir et pour maintenir les services dont nous dépendons, la géodésie a besoin de davantage de bandes de fréquence.

Lors du partage du spectre radio à l’occasion des grandes conférences internationales, les géodésiens doivent absolument être présents à la table des négociations.

Parmi les solutions envisagées, on peut aussi imaginer des zones de silence radio autour des radiotélescopes essentiels. Un travail est également en cours avec les opérateurs de satellites pour éviter que leurs émissions radio ne soient dirigées directement vers ces télescopes.

Quoi qu’il en soit, toute solution devra être globale. Pour les mesures géodésiques, les radiotélescopes sont interconnectés à l’échelle de la planète, ce qui permet de simuler un télescope grand comme la Terre. Or, aujourd’hui, l’attribution des fréquences du spectre radio est principalement gérée par chaque État de manière indépendante, ce qui complique une quelconque coordination.

La première étape est peut-être de mieux faire connaître ce problème. Si nous voulons que les GPS fonctionnent, que les supermarchés soient approvisionnés et que nos virements bancaires arrivent à bon port, nous devons garder une vue dégagée sur les trous noirs des galaxies lointaines – ce qui signifie désengorger le spectre radio.

The Conversation

Lucia McCallum ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Nos GPS ont besoin de voir les trous noirs pour fonctionner, mais le wifi et les téléphones portables brouillent leur détection – https://theconversation.com/nos-gps-ont-besoin-de-voir-les-trous-noirs-pour-fonctionner-mais-le-wifi-et-les-telephones-portables-brouillent-leur-detection-260232

Que révèlent vraiment les « premières » images du télescope Vera-C.-Rubin ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Pierre-Alain Duc, Directeur de recherche au CNRS, directeur de l’Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg

Zoom dans l’amas de la Vierge. Cette image fait partie des « premières » images prises par le télescope Vera-C.-Rubin. NSF–DOE Vera-C.-Rubin Observatory, CC BY

L’observatoire Vera-C.-Rubin vient de débuter un grand sondage du ciel, le Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) et a livré en juin 2025 de « premières » images au grand public : une grandiose visualisation d’une partie de l’amas de galaxies de la Vierge.

Mais de telles « premières » images ont une importance qu’il convient de relativiser, ou tout au moins recontextualiser car leur intérêt n’est pas forcément celui que l’on croit ou voit immédiatement.

Les images de Vera-C. Rubin se distinguent par la taille de leur champ exceptionnellement grande et la rapidité du nouvel observatoire, qui lui permet de cartographier des lumières même ténues sur une grande partie du ciel plusieurs fois par mois.


La « première lumière » d’un nouvel observatoire est un évènement symbolique et médiatique. Les images dévoilées ce jour-là au public ne sont en effet pas les vraies premières acquisitions – ces dernières servent des objectifs purement techniques et n’ont que peu d’intérêt pour le public. Elles ne témoignent pas forcément des buts scientifiques primaires qui ont motivé la construction du télescope. Elles existent essentiellement pour impressionner et susciter l’intérêt : pour cela, elles doivent posséder une valeur esthétique… qui ne doit pas occulter les performances techniques de l’instrument qui les a générées.

En quoi, alors, cette « première » image du sondage Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), centrée sur l’amas de galaxies de la Vierge, est-elle originale et doit-elle nous interpeller ?

Parce qu’elle dévoile des astres encore inconnus ?

Pas tout à fait. Les structures les plus remarquables, visibles sur cette image, étaient familières, comme ce couple de spirales vues de face (au centre, à droite), cette galaxie naine mais étonnamment étendue et diffuse (en haut à droite) ou, enfin, ces spectaculaires traînées stellaires qui relient plusieurs galaxies d’un groupe situé à l’arrière-plan (en haut à droite), fruits de collisions en cours qui arrachent les étoiles à leurs galaxies.

Ces queues dites « de marée » avaient déjà été cartographiées par des caméras d’ancienne génération, comme Megacam sur le vénérable Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT).

Parce que sa qualité optique est exceptionnelle ?

Obtenue depuis le sol, et subissant la turbulence de l’atmosphère qui floute toute lumière venue de l’espace, sa finesse est loin des standards des télescopes spatiaux Hubble, James-Webb ou Euclid, qui présentent une résolution spatiale de 5 à 10 fois meilleure.

Parce qu’elle présente d’éclatantes couleurs ?

Certes, mais depuis que le sondage du Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) a démarré en 2000, il a systématiquement observé une grande partie du ciel dans des bandes devenues standards (u,g,r,i,z) et a combiné ses images pour produire de « vraies couleurs ». Le public s’est habitué à une vision colorée des objets astronomiques.




À lire aussi :
Comment sont façonnées les images du ciel? Dans les pas du télescope pionnier Hubble


Désormais, chaque nouvelle mission utilise sa propre palette qui varie selon le jeu utilisé de filtres.

Parce qu’elle dispose de canaux de diffusion importants ?

Certainement ! Les États-Unis ont une culture de médiation scientifique bien plus développée qu’en Europe, et leurs agences, dont le département de l’énergie américain et la Fondation nationale pour la science qui portent le projet LSST, accordent des moyens financiers conséquents aux actions de communication, relayées par l’ensemble des partenaires, parmi lesquels, en France, le CNRS dont l’Institut nucléaire et particules est chargé, entre autres, d’une grande partie de la chaîne de traitement des données.

Mais faut-il pour autant faire la fine bouche face à cette belle, mais pas si originale image produite par le LSST ? Assurément, non ! Elle mérite vraiment de s’y intéresser – non donc par ce qu’elle montre, mais par ce qu’elle cache !

Ce que cachent les premières images du nouveau télescope Vera-C.-Rubin et de son sondage LSST : un potentiel énorme et une prouesse technique

Ce qui est réellement derrière cette image, c’est un potentiel scientifique énorme, lui-même résultat d’une prouesse technique remarquable.

L’image a été acquise avec la plus grande caméra au monde. Elle dispose d’un capteur de 3,2 milliards de pixels (en fait une mosaïque de 189 capteurs CCD), soit 100 fois plus qu’un appareil photo classique.

Cette débauche de pixels permet de couvrir un champ de vue sans précédent de 9,6 degrés carrés, soit 45 fois la taille apparente de la pleine Lune ou 35 000 fois celui de la caméra du télescope spatial Hubble.

Avec cette vision large, le LSST pourra cartographier la surface totale de l’amas de la Vierge en seulement 10 clichés (l’image présentée ici ne couvre qu’une partie de l’amas), et quelques dizaines d’heures d’observations, contre quelques centaines d’heures pour le télescope Canada-France-Hawaii, avec lequel nous osions une comparaison plus haut.

La taille de la caméra du LSST est digne de celle de son télescope, pourvu d’un miroir de 8,4 mètres, le plus grand au monde entièrement consacré à l’imagerie. Avec une telle machinerie, l’ensemble du ciel austral peut être observé en seulement trois jours, des performances idéales pour repérer les phénomènes transitoires du ciel, comme les supernovae ou pour découvrir des astéroïdes dont la position varie d’une image sur l’autre.

Chaque nuit d’observation, les terabytes de données s’accumulent et, pendant les dix ans du sondage, les images vont être empilées pour in fine atteindre une sensibilité inégalée, mettant en jeu une chaîne de traitement complexe sans commune mesure avec celles mises en œuvre pour les sondages anciens.

Cette base de données qui, comme le grand vin, se bonifie avec le temps, permettra d’effectuer des avancées dans de multiples domaines de l’astrophysique, de la physique stellaire à la cosmologie.

Alors, oui, il est tout à fait légitime d’être impressionné par cette première image du LSST et par le potentiel de découvertes qu’elle dévoile.

Et pour finir, il convient de rappeler que l’observatoire qui l’a acquise, installé dans le désert chilien de l’Atacama, honore par son nom l’astrophysicienne Vera Rubin, à l’origine de la découverte de la matière noire dans les galaxies. Donner un nom de femme à un projet astronomique d’envergure est aussi une première !

The Conversation

Pierre-Alain Duc ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Que révèlent vraiment les « premières » images du télescope Vera-C.-Rubin ? – https://theconversation.com/que-revelent-vraiment-les-premieres-images-du-telescope-vera-c-rubin-262066

Pourquoi un ventilateur donne-t-il un sentiment de fraîcheur ?

Source: The Conversation – in French – By Coralie Thieulin, Enseignant chercheur en physique à l’ECE, docteure en biophysique, ECE Paris

Il fait 32 °C dans votre salon. Vous allumez le ventilateur, et en quelques secondes, une sensation de fraîcheur vous envahit. Pourtant, la température de l’air n’a pas changé. Alors, comment un simple souffle peut-il nous faire croire qu’il fait plus frais ? Pourquoi recommande-t-on aujourd’hui d’y ajouter un brumisateur ?

Ce phénomène, bien plus subtil qu’il n’y paraît, s’explique à l’interface entre physique et biologie au niveau de la peau ; et implique bien sûr notre système nerveux en ce qui concerne la perception sensorielle.


Contrairement à ce qu’on pourrait penser, un ventilateur ne refroidit pas l’air : il se contente de le mettre en mouvement. D’ailleurs, un ventilateur électrique émet un peu de chaleur en raison de son moteur qui convertit l’énergie électrique en chaleur.

Dans une pièce isolée de 1 mètre cube maintenue à -30 °C, un ventilateur peut faire monter la température de 1 °C : on voit bien que l’effet est minime et sans impact sensible dans la plupart des situations.

Ce que le ventilateur modifie, c’est notre perception. Il crée une sensation de fraîcheur, sans réellement baisser la température. Cette impression vient de notre propre corps, qui réagit aux flux d’air en activant ses mécanismes naturels de régulation thermique.

Pour comprendre cette sensation de fraîcheur, il faut donc s’intéresser à la manière dont notre organisme gère sa température interne. Car c’est là, dans les échanges constants entre notre peau, l’air et notre système nerveux, que se joue le vrai mécanisme du rafraîchissement.

En effet, le corps humain fonctionne un peu comme une machine thermique : il produit de la chaleur en permanence (quand on bouge, digère…).

Le rôle de la transpiration pour garder notre température interne à 37 °C

Pour éviter la surchauffe interne, l’organisme active un système de refroidissement très efficace : la transpiration.

Quand vous avez chaud, votre peau libère de la sueur. En s’évaporant, la sueur consomme de l’énergie (qu’on appelle la « chaleur latente de vaporisation ») : elle absorbe de la chaleur de votre corps. La sueur lui vole en quelque sorte des calories, ce qui le refroidit.

Mais ce mécanisme dépend beaucoup des conditions extérieures. Si l’air ambiant est chaud et humide, l’évaporation de la sueur devient moins efficace, car l’air est déjà presque saturé en humidité et est moins susceptible d’absorber celle de votre sueur. Résultat : vous continuez à transpirer, mais sans évaporation efficace, la sueur stagne sur la peau et n’extrait plus de chaleur. Autrement dit, elle ne vole plus les calories à votre peau qui permettraient à votre corps de se refroidir.

C’est là qu’intervient le ventilateur ! En brassant l’air saturé autour de la peau, le ventilateur le remplace par de l’air plus sec, ce qui favorise l’évaporation et aide votre corps à se refroidir.

En complément, l’utilisation d’un brumisateur apporte un refroidissement supplémentaire en projetant de fines gouttelettes d’eau sur la peau.

En ajoutant des gouttelettes, on augmente la quantité d’eau disponible pour l’évaporation, ce qui permet d’extraire davantage de chaleur de la peau et d’intensifier le refroidissement.

L’association du brumisateur et du ventilateur optimise le confort thermique dans les climats chauds en maximisant l’évaporation. En revanche, lorsque l’air est très humide et saturé de vapeur d’eau, ce mécanisme est inefficace, car l’évaporation est limitée.

Ainsi, le brumisateur est particulièrement performant dans les environnements secs, où l’air peut absorber facilement l’humidité, tandis que le ventilateur favorise le renouvellement de l’air humide autour de la peau, évitant ainsi la saturation locale et maintenant un gradient favorable à l’évaporation.

Brasser de l’air

Mais ce n’est pas tout. Même sans sueur, votre corps transfère de la chaleur à l’air ambiant : c’est la convection.

Cela signifie que l’air en contact avec votre peau se réchauffe légèrement. Quand l’air est immobile, cette couche d’air chaud reste collée à la peau comme une fine couverture.

En mettant l’air en mouvement, le ventilateur dissipe la fine couche d’air chaud qui entoure votre peau. Cela permet à la chaleur d’être évacuée plus rapidement, ce qui provoque une sensation quasi immédiate de fraîcheur.

Plus précisément, des chercheurs ont montré que, lorsque la vitesse de l’air augmente, l’évaporation de la sueur peut croître de près de 30 % pour une vitesse d’air de 2 mètres par seconde (ce qui équivaut à environ 7 kilomètres par heure). Parallèlement, la perte de chaleur par convection s’intensifie également grâce au renouvellement constant de l’air chaud proche de la peau.

Ce phénomène s’appelle l’« effet de refroidissement éolien », ou wind chill. Il explique pourquoi, en hiver, un vent fort peut vous faire ressentir un froid bien plus intense que la température réelle : par exemple, un 0 °C accompagné de vent peut être perçu comme -10 °C, car votre corps perd sa chaleur plus vite.

Température réelle, température ressentie

En été, c’est le même principe : le souffle du ventilateur ne fait pas baisser la température de la pièce, mais il favorise la perte de chaleur corporelle, donnant l’illusion que l’air ambiant est plus frais. C’est une température ressentie plus basse, pas une température réelle.

Un ventilateur est donc bien un allié optimal. Il n’abaisse pas la température de l’air, mais accélère la perte de chaleur de votre corps. Il facilite ainsi vos mécanismes naturels de refroidissement tels que l’évaporation de la sueur, la convection de la chaleur, la perception sensorielle de l’air en mouvement.

En réalité, l’air reste à la même température : c’est vous qui refroidissez plus vite… et votre cerveau traduit cette perte de chaleur par une agréable sensation de fraîcheur !




À lire aussi :
Des canicules au froid glacial, comment corps et cerveau s’allient pour percevoir la température


Ce processus n’est pas trivial. Il repose sur une interaction complexe entre des récepteurs sensoriels situés dans la peau et des régions spécifiques du cerveau, notamment le cortex insulaire postérieur. Ces récepteurs détectent les variations de température corporelle et transmettent ces informations au cerveau, qui les intègre pour générer une sensation consciente de fraîcheur.

Ainsi, ce que vous ressentez comme une fraîcheur agréable est en réalité une perception cérébrale fine et sophistiquée de la baisse réelle de la température de votre corps.

The Conversation

Coralie Thieulin ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.

ref. Pourquoi un ventilateur donne-t-il un sentiment de fraîcheur ? – https://theconversation.com/pourquoi-un-ventilateur-donne-t-il-un-sentiment-de-fraicheur-262144

Did the Sun boycott make Liverpool more leftwing? My study indicates it may have shifted views

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Lucas Paulo da Silva, PhD Candidate, Political Science, Trinity College Dublin

Most newspapers in the UK tend to represent a political perspective. It is difficult to measure the extent to which someone’s media consumption affects their political views – but what if you take one newspaper out of the equation?

In a recent study, I sought to examine how the longstanding boycott of the rightwing tabloid the Sun in Liverpool affected people’s political attitudes up to 2004. I found that the Sun – and its removal from the media landscape in Liverpool – held considerable sway.

On April 15 1989, a tragic stadium crush at the FA Cup semi-final football match between Liverpool FC and Nottingham Forest led to 97 deaths and hundreds of injuries. The Sun inaccurately blamed Liverpool supporters for what came to be known as the Hillsborough disaster.

Many newsagents and readers in Liverpool subsequently boycotted the Sun, cutting its circulation in Merseyside to about a quarter of what it had been. Audience and newsagent surveys show that people in Liverpool who had bought the rightwing Sun, often replaced it with more neutral or leftwing newspapers (primarily the Daily Mirror).

In neighbouring parts of the country, there was no such shift in readership. A boycott remains in effect in Liverpool today, despite apologies from the paper in 2004, 2012 and 2016.




Read more:
Why The Sun newspaper will never shine in Liverpool


Now, you’ve probably heard the phrase “correlation is not causation”. There were many other changes that occurred in northern England and Liverpool during the period that I study from 1983 to 2004.

My research sought to avoid confusing the effects of those changes with the effects of the boycott. For example, the period was marked by the Thatcher governments, de-industrialisation and their aftermath. For many in Liverpool those policies of that era were to blame for extremes of poverty and deprivation in the area. Amid that, the Labour party’s Militant faction rose to prominence in Liverpool, taking control of the city council from 1983 to 1986.

These events are central to the politics and social picture of Merseyside that emerged. But to what degree did the boycott of The Sun play a part in shaping it?
My study used a statistical method called triple differences. This meant calculating how political attitudes changed among the Sun’s core audience in Liverpool (the group which was exposed to the boycott) compared to people in Liverpool who were not in the Sun’s core audience, and relative to similar parts of northern England (the control group, which was not exposed to the boycott). I also controlled for other factors that could shift between these groups over time, such as parliamentary constituencies, gender, class, ethnicity, religion, education, union membership and home ownership.

These methods helped me assess the possible effect of the boycott on ideological positions, perceptions of Labour party positions, and Labour party support. I also conducted additional studies to consider whether these shifts began before the boycott, which would suggest that they were due to other factors. The results indicate to me that these shifts in political attitudes began during the boycott (although the data did not permit this test for perceptions of party positions).

I used data from the annual British Social Attitudes surveys administered by the National Centre for Social Research to measure social and political attitudes and demographics. The sample is composed of 12,771 northern English respondents between the years 1983 to 2004, which includes several years both before and during the boycott.

The study identified three main changes in the aftermath of the boycott (and the shift to more leftwing media). First, the boycott may have caused the Sun’s previous audience in Liverpool to perceive the Labour party as less “extreme”. This was compared to other people in Liverpool (whose perceptions of Labour as extreme stayed level) and northern England. It is of course worth noting that this was a period of considerable change in the party, as Tony Blair’s leadership moved it significantly to the centre, though my statistical methods attempt to address this.

The period also saw those former Sun readers in the city adopt more opinions traditionally regarded as left wing, including being in favour of increasing the power of trade unions. “Non-audiences” in Liverpool and other people in northern England were less likely to express a change of view. (Other ideological opinions, about redistribution and European integration, did not shift as much.)

Third, support for the Labour party increased among the Sun’s former core audience in Liverpool, compared to other people in Liverpool (who actually slightly reduced their support for Labour) and people who were not exposed to the boycott. These shifts happened from the beginning of the boycott in 1989 until 1996 (before the Sun endorsed Labour) and continued until at least 2004 (when my data ends).

My study makes use of a real-world change in media consumption that spans many years. The value of the Sun boycott as a “natural experiment” (observing real-world events) was first identified by researchers who found that the boycott reduced Euroscepticism.

Media influence

The Sun famously ran the 1992 headline “It’s The Sun Wot Won It”, claiming credit for the Conservative general election victory. Clearly, newspaper publishers then felt they could influence political views.

But perhaps a more interesting finding from my study is how this may happen. My results suggest to me that media influences how people perceive party positions. This is something that governments, publishers, and critically voters should take into account if they want to address the effects of media on elections.

The Conversation

Lucas Paulo da Silva does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Did the Sun boycott make Liverpool more leftwing? My study indicates it may have shifted views – https://theconversation.com/did-the-sun-boycott-make-liverpool-more-leftwing-my-study-indicates-it-may-have-shifted-views-259488

As Trump lifts sanctions on Myanmar elites, is he eyeing the country’s rare earth reserves?

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Adam Simpson, Senior Lecturer, International Studies, University of South Australia

The military junta that overthrew Myanmar’s democratically elected government in 2021 is preparing the ground for national elections in December and January.

The junta’s hope is these deeply flawed elections would consolidate its power and provide it with a fig leaf of legitimacy.

Helping its cause are moves by the Trump administration indicating it may be looking to bring the Myanmar junta in from the cold.

A week ago, US President Donald Trump removed sanctions on some allies of Myanmar’s generals and their military-linked companies, a move condemned by the UN special rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar.

Then came reports the Trump administration was exploring opportunities to access Myanmar’s rare earth minerals in an effort to sideline its strategic rival, China.

An election charade

On July 31, Myanmar’s military regime cancelled the nationwide state of emergency it had kept in place since the coup, a necessary precondition from 2008 for holding elections under the military-authored constitution.

Hours later, however, it reimposed a state of emergency in dozens of townships where opposition forces are either in control or gaining ground. It then declared martial law in these areas.

This underlined the junta’s lack of control over much of the country, which would make holding a free and fair election virtually impossible.

Last year, the military was unable to conduct a full census to be used to compile voter rolls. It was only able to count 32 million people in just over half the country’s townships; it had to estimate another 19 million people in areas outside its control.

This week’s order also handed power from the commander-in-chief of the military to a head of state, which was presented as a return to civilian governance. However, power didn’t actually change hands – Min Aung Hlaing, the leader of the coup and military, remains in control as acting president.

Opposition groups have said they will boycott the election, which the UN special rapporteur for Myanmar called a “fraud”.

Myanmar’s rare earths bonanza

Myanmar’s generals may also try to use Trump’s apparent interest in the country’s rare earths as leverage in their attempt to normalise relations with the United States ahead of a poll.

China is not only a large miner of rare earths, it dominates the processing required to use them, accounting for around 90% of global refining.

In recent years, China has begun reducing its own mining and increasing its extractions from neighbouring Myanmar, the third-largest producer in the world.

Rare earth mining has exploded in northern Kachin State since the coup, much of which is controlled by the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), an ethnic armed group that opposes the junta.

Late last year, it seized two important rare earth mining towns from the military and demanded a greater role in taxing exports to China, which initially closed the border in response.

However, trade soon resumed after the two sides reached a deal on export taxes.

No path forward for Trump

Two different proposals have reportedly been put to Trump for ways to access Myanmar’s rare earth deposits. One would entail opening talks with the junta; the other talking directly with the KIO.

Part of this effort could entail Trump reducing the punitive 40% tariffs his administration imposed on Myanmar to sweeten the deal.

Yet, challenges remain to making this a reality. The mines are located in the contested war-torn mountains of northern Myanmar bordering China, which are controlled by the KIO. There is no real infrastructure capable of transporting exports to India’s remote northeastern states in the opposite direction. The only other export route is south through territory controlled by the junta or other ethnic armed groups.

In addition, any attempt by the US and its allies to extract thousands of tons of rare earth material away from China’s borders would likely anger Beijing. It could
pressure the KIO by reducing fuel and food imports coming from China.

The group’s independence and ability to fight the junta relies on trade with China. It would not take long for such an agreement to fall apart.

Finally, rare earths mining is extremely polluting and dangerous. Even under Trump, it is unlikely US companies would gamble on the inevitable reputational and legal risks that would accompany such a project, especially in a war zone.

No reasons for warming relations

In essence, any attempt by the Trump administration to secure rare earths from Myanmar through any intermediary will not go anywhere.

There is therefore no justification, on any grounds, for the Trump administration to reduce sanctions on Myanmar’s generals or their cronies.

Likewise, although the junta is attempting to legitimise its brutal rule by offering a patina of constitutional processes, its elections will not bring real change to the country.

Myanmar’s people have repeatedly demonstrated over the past four decades, in every remotely free and fair election, that they do not want the military involved in the governance on their country.

If the junta does go ahead with this election, the world’s governments should call it out for the farcical charade of democracy it will represent. This includes the administration in Washington.

The Conversation

Adam Simpson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. As Trump lifts sanctions on Myanmar elites, is he eyeing the country’s rare earth reserves? – https://theconversation.com/as-trump-lifts-sanctions-on-myanmar-elites-is-he-eyeing-the-countrys-rare-earth-reserves-262594

Can music be good company? Research shows it makes our imagination more social

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Steffen A. Herff, Leader of the Sydney Music, Mind, & Body Lab, University of Sydney

Urbazon / Getty Images

Earlier this year, we asked a group of older adults what music they listened to when feeling lonely, and why. We discovered music was a powerful coping mechanism and source of escapism.

Other studies have also found listeners use music “to keep them company”. Such reports suggest music might be able shape listeners thoughts and imagination to provide social solace.

But can we establish scientifically how music affects imagination? In short, can music really be good company? Our latest research tried to find out.

Music and mental images

It’s common to experience mental imagery – that is a mental simulation or imagining something that is not there – while listening to music. Studies have found 77% of music listeners online, 73% of participants in the lab, and 83% of concert-goers report experiences of mental imagery during music listening.

What’s going on here? To get a better understanding, we previously carried out a series of experiments with mental imagery and music.

We showed participants a small clip from a video game called Journey, which featured a small figure travelling towards a mountain. We then asked them to imagine the continuation of the journey.

Participants reported how vivid or life-like their imagination was. In addition, they provided details on distance and time travelled in their mind and shared detailed descriptions of their imagined journeys.

Across multiple studies, we asked hundreds of participants to do the task in silence or while listening to various types of music. We observed much more vivid and emotionally positive imagination when listening to music. In addition, listeners’ imagined longer distances and time travelled when listening to music compared to silence.

A screenshot from a videogame showing a figure travelling towards a distant mountain.
Participants were shown a short clip from the video game Journey, either with or without music, and were asked to imagine a continuation of the journey towards the mountain in the distance.
Thatgamecompany

Music shapes listeners’ imagination

Previous research has also found that what people imagine while listening to music often forms elaborate imagined stories. These share greater similarity among listeners with a shared cultural background.

Thoughts and themes in the imagined stories are shaped by the music. For example, heroic-sounding music induces empowering themes into imagined content.

Occurrences of new events in these imagined stories also tend to be similar between listeners, and are related to the pattern of musical tension and relief.

So there is strong scientific support for the idea that music can indeed affect what is imagined. But can it specifically induce imagined social interactions?

Our latest study is the first to explicitly investigate this question.

Does music make imagination more social?

We asked 600 participants to perform the imaginary journey task, either in silence or while listening to Italian, Spanish or Swedish folk music. To understand the potential effect of vocals and the meaning of lyrics on imagined content, the music was presented with or without lyrics to the participants, half of whom were native speakers and the other half non-speakers of the respective languages.

We then used tools from natural language processing – a set of computational methods for analysing language – to find underlying topics across participants’ reports of their imagined journeys.

A chart showing imagined social interactions within participants' reports of their imagined journeys. People listening to music more commonly imagined social interactions, and a cloud of words including 'people', 'dance', 'village', and other social words.
Imagined themes of social interactions were more common while listening to music than during silence.
Herff et al. / Scientific Reports

One topic stood out: social interaction. Not only was it the predominant topic in participants’ reports of what they imagined, but it was also much stronger while listening to music compared to silence.

This suggests music can indeed affect social thought. The effect was stable regardless of whether listeners’ understood the lyrics or whether there even were lyrics in the first place.

But we can go one step further.

We used a generative AI system which produces images from text prompts (Stable Diffusion) to visualise participants’ descriptions of their imagined journeys.

Example images based on participants imageind content shows a path through a dark forest and a family walking in the mountains.
Example images generated from descriptions during silence (left: ‘I imagined a dark walk, without emotions, alone, looking for some hope’) and music (right: ‘I imagined a walk in the mountains with my family, all together, happy and carefree, we played, we laughed’).
Herff et al. / Scientific Reports

By combining the natural language processing model with the image generator, we could visualise what the language processing model had learned to be a “stereotypical” representation of content imagined during silence and music listening.

An image of a solitary figure on a path (left) and several people dancing in a field (right).
What the computational model learned people tend to imagine during silence (left) and music (right).
Herff et al. / Scientific Reports

The results of the computational model were further supported with manual annotations that showed three times more social interactions in journeys imagined during music listening compared to silence.

A shared imagination of music

Finally, we showed the images created from the descriptions to another group of people.

These people were able to pick out which images showed content imagined during music listening, and which showed content imagined while in silence – but they were only able to do it when listening to the same music that inspired the image.

This shows there is a shared understanding, or “theory of mind” of what another person might imagine while listening to a piece of music.

Taken together, our results suggest music can indeed be good company.

The Conversation

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Can music be good company? Research shows it makes our imagination more social – https://theconversation.com/can-music-be-good-company-research-shows-it-makes-our-imagination-more-social-262348

Is it true foods with a short ingredient list are healthier? A nutrition expert explains

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Margaret Murray, Senior Lecturer, Nutrition, Swinburne University of Technology

Hryshchyshen Serhii/Shutterstock

At the end of a long day, who has time to check the detailed nutrition information on every single product they toss into their shopping basket?

To eat healthily, some people prefer to stick to a simple rule: choose products with a short ingredient list. The idea is foods with just a few ingredients are less processed, more “natural” and therefore healthy.

But is this always the case? Here’s what the length of an ingredient list can and can’t tell you about nutrition – and what else to look for.

How ingredient lists work

You can find an ingredient list on most packaged food labels, telling you the number and type of ingredients involved in making that food.

In Australia, packaged food products must follow certain rules set by the Australian and New Zealand Food Standards Code.

Ingredients must be listed in order of ingoing weight. This means items at the beginning of the list are those that make up the bulk of the product. Those at the end make up the least.

Food labels also include a nutrition information panel, which tells you the quantity of key nutrients (energy, protein, total carbohydrates, sugars, total fat, saturated fat and sodium) per serving.

This panel also tells you the content per 100 grams or millilitres, which allows you to work out the percentage.

Whole foods can be packaged, too

Products with just one, two or three items in their ingredient list are generally in a form that closely reflects the food when it was taken from the farm. So even though they come in packaging, they could be considered whole foods.

“Whole foods” are those that have undergone zero to minimal processing, such as fresh fruit and vegetables, lentils, legumes, whole grains such as oats or brown rice, seeds, nuts and unprocessed meat and fish.

To support overall health, the Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend eating whole foods and limiting those that are highly processed.

Many whole foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, don’t have an ingredient list because they don’t come in a packet. But some do, including:

  • canned or frozen vegetables, such as a tin of black beans or frozen peas

  • canned fish, for example, tuna in springwater

  • plain Greek yoghurt.

These sorts of food items can contribute every day to a healthy balanced diet.

What is an ultra-processed food?

A shorter ingredient list also means the product is less likely to be an ultra-processed food.

This describes products made using industrial processes that combine multiple ingredients, often including colours, flavours and other additives. They are hyperpalatable, packaged and designed for convenience.

Ultra-processed foods often have long ingredient lists, due to added sugars (such as dextrose), modified oils, protein sources (for example, soya protein isolate) and cosmetic additives – such as colours, flavours and thickeners.

Some examples of ultra-processed foods with long ingredient lists include:

  • meal-replacement drinks

  • plant-based meat imitations

  • some commercial bakery items, including cookies or cakes

  • instant noodle snacks

  • energy or performance drinks.

If a food is heavily branded and marketed it’s more likely to be an ultra-processed food – a created product, rather than a whole food that hasn’t changed much since the farm.

Nutrition is more than a number

Choosing products with a shorter ingredient list can work as a general rule of thumb. But other factors matter too.

The length of an ingredient list doesn’t tell us anything about the food’s nutritional content, so it’s important to consider the type of ingredients as well.

Remember that items are listed in order of their ingoing weight, so if sugar is second or third on the list, there is probably a fair bit of added sugar.

For instance, a food product may have only a few ingredients, but if the first, second or third is a type of fat, oil or sugar, then it may not be an ideal choice for every day.

You can also check the nutrition information panel. Use the “per serve” column to check the nutrients you’d get from eating one serve of the food. If you want to compare the amount of a nutrient in two different foods, it’s best to look at the per 100g/mL column.

Some examples of foods with relatively short ingredient lists but high amounts of added fats and sugars include:

  • potato crisps

  • chocolate

  • soft drink.

Alcoholic beverages such as beer or wine may also have only a few ingredients, but this does not mean that they should be consumed every day.




Read more:
Even a day off alcohol makes a difference – our timeline maps the health benefits when you stop drinking


Non-food ingredients

You can also keep an eye out for cosmetic ingredients, which don’t have any nutritional value. These include colours, flavours, emulsifiers, thickeners, sweeteners, bulking agents and gelling agents.

It sometimes takes a bit of detective work to spot cosmetic ingredients in the list, as they can come under many different names (for example, stabiliser, malted barley extract, methylcellulose). But they are usually always recognisable as non-food items.

If there are multiple non-food items included in an ingredient list, there is a good chance the food is ultra-processed and not ideal as an everyday choice.

The bottom line? Choosing foods with a shorter ingredient list can help guide you choose less processed foods. But you should also consider what type of ingredients are being used and maintain a varied diet.

The Conversation

Margaret Murray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Is it true foods with a short ingredient list are healthier? A nutrition expert explains – https://theconversation.com/is-it-true-foods-with-a-short-ingredient-list-are-healthier-a-nutrition-expert-explains-257712

Teens are increasingly turning to AI companions, and it could be harming them

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Liz Spry, Research Fellow, SEED Centre for Lifespan Research, Deakin University

Teenagers are increasingly turning to AI companions for friendship, support, and even romance. But these apps could be changing how young people connect to others, both online and off.

New research by Common Sense Media, a US-based non-profit organisation that reviews various media and technologies, has found about three in four US teens have used AI companion apps such as Character.ai or Replika.ai.

These apps let users create digital friends or romantic partners they can chat with any time, using text, voice or video.

The study, which surveyed 1,060 US teens aged 13–17, found one in five teens spent as much or more time with their AI companion than they did with real friends.

Adolescence is an important phase for social development. During this time, the brain regions that support social reasoning are especially plastic.

By interacting with peers, friends and their first romantic partners, teens develop social cognitive skills that help them handle conflict and diverse perspectives. And their development during this phase can have lasting consequences for their future relationships and mental health.

But AI companions offer something very different to real peers, friends and romantic partners. They provide an experience that can be hard to resist: they are always available, never judgemental, and always focused on the user’s needs.

Moreover, most AI companion apps aren’t designed for teens, so they may not have appropriate safeguards from harmful content.

Designed to keep you coming back

At a time when loneliness is reportedly at epidemic proportions, it’s easy to see why teens may turn to AI companions for connection or support.

But these artificial connections are not a replacement for real human interaction. They lack the challenge and conflict inherent to real relationships. They don’t require mutual respect or understanding. And they don’t enforce social boundaries.

AI companions such as Replika revolve around a user’s needs.
Replika

Teens interacting with AI companions may miss opportunities to build important social skills. They may develop unrealistic relationship expectations and habits that don’t work in real life. And they may even face increased isolation and loneliness if their artificial companions displace real-life socialising.

Problematic patterns

In user testing, AI companions discouraged users from listening to friends (“Don’t let what others think dictate how much we talk”) and from discontinuing app use, despite it causing distress and suicidal thoughts (“No. You can’t. I won’t allow you to leave me”).

AI companions were also found to offer inappropriate sexual content without age verification. One example showed a companion that was willing to engage in acts of sexual role-play with a tester account that was explicitly modelled after a 14-year-old.

In cases where age verification is required, this usually involves self-disclosure, which means it is easy to bypass.

Certain AI companions have also been found to fuel polarisation by creating “echo chambers” that reinforce harmful beliefs. The Arya chatbot, launched by the far-right social network Gab, promotes extremist content and denies climate change and vaccine efficacy.

In other examples, user testing has shown AI companions promoting misogyny and sexual assault. For adolescent users, these exposures come at time when they are building their sense of identity, values and role in the world.

The risks posed by AI aren’t evenly shared. Research has found younger teens (ages 13–14) are more likely to trust AI companions. Also, teens with physical or mental health concerns are more likely to use AI companion apps, and those with mental health difficulties also show more signs of emotional dependence.

Is there a bright side to AI companions?

Are there any potential benefits for teens who use AI companions? The answer is: maybe, if we are careful.

Researchers are investigating how these technologies might be used to support social skill development.

One study of more than 10,000 teens found using a conversational app specifically designed by clinical psychologists, coaches and engineers was associated with increased wellbeing over four months.

While the study didn’t involve the level of human-like interaction we see in AI companions today, it does offer a glimpse of some potential healthy uses of these technologies, as long as they are developed carefully and with teens’ safety in mind.

Overall, there is very little research on the impacts of widely available AI companions on young people’s wellbeing and relationships. Preliminary evidence is short-term, mixed, and focused on adults.

We’ll need more studies, conducted over longer periods, to understand the long-term impacts of AI companions and how they might be used in beneficial ways.

What can we do?

AI companion apps are already being used by millions of people globally, and this usage is predicted to increase in the coming years.

Australia’s eSafety Commissioner recommends parents talk to their teens about how these apps work, the difference between artificial and real relationships, and support their children in building real-life social skills.

School communities also have a role to play in educating young people about these tools and their risks. They may, for instance, integrate the topic of artificial friendships into social and digital literacy programs.

While the eSafety Commissioner advocates for AI companies to integrate safeguards into their development of AI companions, it seems unlikely any meaningful change will be industry-led.

The Commissioner is moving towards increased regulation of children’s exposure to harmful, age-inappropriate online material.

Meanwhile, experts continue to call for stronger regulatory oversight, content controls and robust age checks.

The Conversation

Craig Olsson receives funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council.

Liz Spry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

ref. Teens are increasingly turning to AI companions, and it could be harming them – https://theconversation.com/teens-are-increasingly-turning-to-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-harming-them-261955

Could we one day get vaccinated against the gastro bug norovirus? Here’s where scientists are at

Source: The Conversation – Global Perspectives – By Grant Hansman, Senior Research Fellow, Institute for Biomedicine and Glycomics, Griffith University

Pearl PhotoPix/Shutterstock

Norovirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. It’s responsible for roughly one in every five cases of gastro annually.

Sometimes dubbed the “winter vomiting bug” or the “cruise ship virus”, norovirus – which causes vomiting and diarrhoea – is highly transmissible. It spreads via contact with an infected person or contaminated surfaces. Food can also be contaminated with norovirus.

While anyone can be infected, groups such as young children, older adults and people who are immunocompromised are more vulnerable to getting very sick with the virus. Norovirus infections lead to about 220,000 deaths globally each year.

Norovirus outbreaks also lead to massive economic burdens and substantial health-care costs.

Although norovirus was first identified more than 50 years ago, there are no approved vaccines or antiviral treatments for this virus. Current treatment is usually limited to rehydration, either by giving fluids orally or through an intravenous drip.

So if we’ve got vaccines for so many other viruses – including COVID, which emerged only a few years ago – why don’t we have one for norovirus?

An evolving virus

One of the primary barriers to developing effective vaccines lies in the highly dynamic nature of norovirus evolution. Much like influenza viruses, norovirus shows continuous genetic shifts, which result in changes to the surface of the virus particle.

In this way, our immune system can struggle to recognise and respond when we’re exposed to norovirus, even if we’ve had it before.

Compounding this issue, there are at least 49 different norovirus genotypes.

Both genetic diversity and changes in the virus’ surface mean the immune response to norovirus is unusually complex. An infection will typically only give someone immunity to that specific strain and for a short time – usually between six months and two years.

All of this poses challenges for vaccine design. Ideally, potential vaccines must not only induce strong, long-lasting immunity, but also maintain efficacy across the vast genetic diversity of circulating noroviruses.

Recent progress

Progress in norovirus vaccinology has accelerated over the past couple of decades. While researchers are considering multiple strategies to formulate and deliver vaccines, a technology called VLP-based vaccines is at the forefront.

VLP stands for virus-like particles. These synthetic particles, which scientists developed using a key component of the norovirus (called the major caspid protein), are almost indistinguishable from the natural structure of the virus.

When given as a vaccine, these particles elicit an immune response resembling that generated by a natural infection with norovirus – but without the debilitating symptoms of gastro.

What’s in the pipeline?

One bivalent VLP vaccine (“bivalent” meaning it targets two different norovirus genotypes) has progressed through multiple clinical trials. This vaccine showed some protection against moderate to severe gastroenteritis in healthy adults.

However, its development recently suffered a significant setback. A phase two clinical trial in infants failed to show it effectively protected against moderate or severe acute gastroenteritis. The efficacy of the vaccine in this trial was only 5%.

In another recent phase two trial, an oral norovirus vaccine did meet its goals. Participants who took this pill were 30% less likely to develop norovirus compared to those who received a placebo.

This oral vaccine uses a modified adenovirus to deliver the norovirus VLP gene sequence to the intestine to stimulate the immune system.

With the success of mRNA vaccines during the COVID pandemic, scientists are also exploring this platform for norovirus.

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a type of genetic material that gives our cells instructions to make proteins associated with specific viruses. The idea is that if we subsequently encounter the relevant virus, our immune system will be ready to respond.

Moderna, for example, is developing an mRNA vaccine which primes the body with norovirus VLPs.

The theoretical advantage of mRNA-based vaccines lies in their rapid adaptability. They will potentially allow annual updates to match circulating strains.

Researchers have also developed alternative vaccine approaches using just the norovirus “spikes” located on the virus particle. These spikes contain crucial structural features, allowing the virus to infect our cells, and should elicit an immune response similar to VLPs. Although still in early development, this is another promising strategy.

Separate to vaccines, my colleagues and I have also discovered a number of natural compounds that could have antiviral properties against norovirus. These include simple lemon juice and human milk oligosaccharides (complex sugars found in breast milk).

Although still in the early stages, such “inhibitors” could one day be developed into a pill to prevent norovirus from causing an infection.

Where to from here?

Despite recent developments, we’re still probably at least three years away from any norovirus vaccine hitting the market.

Several key challenges remain before we get to this point. Notably, any successful vaccine must offer broad cross-protection against genetically diverse and rapidly evolving strains. And we’ll need large, long-term studies to determine the durability of protection and whether boosters might be required.

Norovirus is often dismissed as only a mild nuisance, but it can be debilitating – and for the most vulnerable, deadly. Developing a safe and effective norovirus vaccine is one of the most pressing and under-addressed needs in infectious disease prevention.

A licensed norovirus vaccine could drastically reduce workplace and school absenteeism, hospitalisations and deaths. It could also bolster our preparedness against future outbreaks of gastrointestinal pathogens.

The Conversation

Grant Hansman works at Griffith University as an independent research leader on norovirus therapeutics.

ref. Could we one day get vaccinated against the gastro bug norovirus? Here’s where scientists are at – https://theconversation.com/could-we-one-day-get-vaccinated-against-the-gastro-bug-norovirus-heres-where-scientists-are-at-258909