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Source: The Conversation – UK – By Manal Mohammed, Senior Lecturer, Medical Microbiology, University of Westminster

When babies struggle with poor sleep, parents often suffer right alongside them. Growing evidence shows that a baby’s gut health plays a key role in comfort, digestion and overall sleep quality. Supporting a healthy gut microbiome may help babies sleep better, which can bring much-needed relief to exhausted parents.

Newborns are not born with a fully developed sleep-wake cycle and many rely on cues from feeding, contact and environmental rhythms. Strengthening the gut microbiome can support more settled sleep. The following approaches are backed by emerging research.

Breastfed babies, if doing so is possible, tend to have better sleep patterns and a more stable sleep-wake cycle than infants fed adapted formula. Breast milk naturally contains beneficial bacteria that help seed the infant gut, as well as human milk oligosaccharides, which are specialised carbohydrates found only in human milk.

Babies cannot digest them, but beneficial gut bacteria can. These oligosaccharides act as prebiotics, feeding helpful gut bacteria such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus. They also help protect the gut lining and block harmful microbes from attaching to it.

Breast milk also delivers hormonal signals that influence sleep, including melatonin and tryptophan. These can help infants settle more easily and form more regular rhythms over time. Even partial breastfeeding can offer these benefits.

Allow skin-to-skin and close contact

Physical closeness, also known as kangaroo care, helps transfer healthy maternal microbes and supports sleep regulation. Skin-to-skin contact stabilises an infant’s temperature, breathing and heart rate. These steady physiological rhythms reduce energy expenditure and help babies reach calmer, more predictable states that support sleep development.

Studies show that an infant’s temperature can shift by one to two degrees Celsius during skin-to-skin contact, and the caregiver’s body adjusts through close thermal coupling to help keep the baby within a comfortable range. This reduces the effort required from the infant to maintain their own temperature.

Skin-to-skin contact also reduces signs of stress and helps babies settle more easily into sleep. It activates the parasympathetic nervous system, sometimes called rest-and-digest mode, which supports digestion and relaxation. Close contact also boosts oxytocin, reducing crying and encouraging feeding, which indirectly supports sleep.

Avoid over-sanitising

Normal home-level exposure to skin bacteria, family members and pets helps diversify the infant microbiome. This does not mean all forms of close contact are risk free. Very young babies are more vulnerable to infections such as HSV, which can be transmitted through saliva, so caregivers who are unwell or have active cold sores should avoid kissing newborns and keep hands clean during feeding.

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Read more:
Why you should never kiss a baby

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Routine use of antibacterial soaps and antibacterial wipes is not recommended unless necessary, for example when cleaning up bodily fluids, dealing with known infections in the household or following medical advice after surgery or immune-related conditions.

Support the microbiome through solids

Once a baby is developmentally ready, usually after six months, fibre-rich foods such as mashed beans, peas, lentils, sweet potato, oats and bananas can help nourish the gut.

Foods containing natural probiotics can be introduced once a baby has begun solids, provided they are offered in small amounts and prepared appropriately.

Plain yogurt is usually suitable from six months, as are fermented dairy products such as kefir when they are unsweetened and have a safe texture – smooth, runny or spoonable with no lumps – so that it can be swallowed easily and does not pose a choking risk. Other fermented foods, such as small tastes of fermented vegetable brine, should be low in salt and sugar and blended or thinned to an appropriate consistency.

Introducing allergens such as peanut and egg early, in line with current paediatric guidelines, also helps support immune balance.

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Read more:
Are peanut allergies actually declining?

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Use antibiotics only when needed

Antibiotics can disrupt the gut microbiome by reducing microbial diversity, lowering levels of beneficial bacteria and allowing less helpful strains to dominate. They should never be avoided when medically necessary, but unnecessary courses should be minimised. Because antibiotics can deplete helpful gut bacteria, some parents consider using probiotics to support recovery.

Certain probiotic supplements may reduce colic and support sleep by improving gut comfort. Commonly studied infant strains include Lactobacillus reuteri and Bifidobacterium infantis.

These strains feed on human milk oligosaccharides, support digestion and help maintain gut barrier function. They may also reduce inflammation and produce metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids, which nourish the cells lining the gut and support immune regulation. Medical guidance is essential before introducing any supplements.

Watch for gut-disrupting issues

Healthy digestion supports better sleep and can be aided by effective burping, avoiding overfeeding and monitoring for possible food intolerances such as cow’s milk protein sensitivity. Addressing discomfort early can prevent sleep disruption. Tracking patterns around feeds, nappies and crying spells can help identify symptoms that cluster at particular times of day.

Persistent arching, pulling legs to the chest, vomiting after most feeds or stools containing mucus can signal a problem beyond routine wind. Reflux, constipation and transient lactose overload – when milk moves through the gut too quickly for the lactose to be fully digested, leading to gas, frothy stools and discomfort – are common culprits.

Allow pet exposure

Household dog exposure is linked to more robust infant microbiomes and may support healthier immune outcomes. Dogs introduce a wider range of environmental microbes into the home during a sensitive developmental window. There is no need to get a pet solely for this purpose, but research suggests that normal interaction with existing pets could be beneficial.

Routine contact such as supervised play, shared floor space and the general messiness that comes with pets can all contribute. Sensible hygiene still applies. Wash hands after handling food bowls or dog waste and keep pets out of sleeping spaces.

Regulate the sleep environment

Predictable routines reduce stress and support more settled sleep. Creating a stable sleep environment helps lower arousal levels, which can otherwise unsettle digestion.

Aim for a consistent room temperature, dim lighting and a calm wind-down routine that signals the shift from stimulation to rest. White noise can mask household sounds that might otherwise wake a baby. Try to keep overnight interactions low key with minimal talking and gentle movements. These cues form a stable pattern that supports deeper, more restorative sleep.

While no single strategy guarantees perfect nights, these evidence-informed practices work together to support a healthier gut and a more settled baby. When babies sleep better, parents finally get the rest they need too.

Manal Mohammed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How a healthy gut could help your baby sleep better – https://theconversation.com/how-a-healthy-gut-could-help-your-baby-sleep-better-271445

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Sanwal Hussain, PhD Candidate in the Department of Politics and Society, Aston University

The US government halted all applications for green cards, citizenship and asylum from 19 mostly African and Middle Eastern countries on December 2. This move came a week after President Donald Trump announced he would “permanently pause migration” from all “third-world countries” after two national guard members in Washington were shot by an Afghan national.

A cornerstone of Trump’s 2024 presidential election campaign was his promise to deport record numbers of migrants. And in September, his administration claimed to be on track to deport nearly 600,000 people by the end of Trump’s first year in office. But these latest announcements are a sharp escalation.

Regardless of what this will all mean for migrants in the US moving forward, it has drawn renewed global attention to migration. So what are some of the countries people have been fleeing from in recent years, and why are they taking the decision to do so?

Afghanistan

Afghanistan has one of the largest displaced populations in the world. Four decades of conflict and instability have contributed to a situation where, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), up to 1 million Afghan men migrate annually.

These people are mostly aged between 18 and 26 and migrate via informal means to neighbouring Iran and Pakistan, as well as westward predominantly to Turkey, the Gulf region, Europe and the US. Women and girls generally constitute only a small proportion of the migration flows.

The number of people fleeing Afghanistan surged in 2021, when the Taliban took back control of the country after a 20-year insurgency against US and Nato forces. The IOM estimated that approximately 20,000 to 30,000 Afghan nationals were migrating abroad each week around the time the Taliban captured the capital of Kabul.

Around 180,000 Afghans were resettled in the US under Biden-era programmes to help people who had worked with allied forces during the war escape. The US has now effectively ended these programmes.

Since 2021, tens of thousands more Afghan migrants have been resettled in the UK, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands and Brazil. They have arrived under schemes similar to those introduced by the US, as well as by seeking asylum through more conventional routes.

Migration from Afghanistan is being driven primarily by the pursuit of safety and economic security. When the Taliban first ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, it completely excluded women from public life – banning their education and employment.

The Taliban authorities also prohibited music, visual arts, paintings and even poetry. And it enforced harsh criminal punishments for people accused of adultery, including public floggings and stonings.

Since 2021, the Taliban has reintroduced many of these policies. Women are banned from education beyond primary school, as well as employment and public spaces. They cannot move freely in public without a male guardian.

Amnesty International says the Taliban has carried out arbitrary arrests, forcible disappearances and torture. It claims former government employees, human rights defenders and journalists have been executed without trial.

At the same time, the economic situation is dire. The Afghan economy has long depended on foreign assistance, which has been disrupted as a result of sanctions against the Taliban. In 2024, the UN reported that approximately 85% of Afghans live on less than US$1 a day (£0.75).

Iran

In Afghanistan’s westerly neighbour Iran, many people are also choosing to flee. Around 2.2 million Iranians left the country in 2022, with research out of Tehran’s Sharif University finding that 62% of those currently living abroad have no intention of returning.

Many of the people leaving Iran are young professionals or students. In 2024, Iranian state media reported that approximately 110,000 students had left the country to study abroad that year, with Europe and the US popular destinations.

Others resort to illegal migration. Between January 2023 and March 2024, around 20,000 Iranian nationals applied for asylum in the EU, while approximately 62,000 have sought asylum in the UK over the past decade – more than any other nationality.

The decision of Iranians to flee appears to stem from a loss of hope in change. Iran’s authorities have consistently responded to protests violently, most recently killing more than 500 people in a crackdown on the Women, Life, Freedom movement. This nationwide movement was sparked by the death of a 22-year-old Iranian girl called Mahsa Amini in police custody in 2022.

Beyond state repression, many Iranians are struggling to find jobs in an economy that has been severely weakened by years of western sanctions. And even those who do have jobs are gradually seeing their quality of life eroded by high inflation rates. Cultural restrictions, such as a ban on modern dress and western music, are also a source of frustration for people.

Pakistan

Nearly 3 million Pakistani nationals have moved away from their country in the past three years. Many of these people are skilled workers seeking opportunities in Australia, Canada, Europe, the UK or US. Others, usually unskilled workers, are migrating to the Gulf region.

The number of students in Pakistan going abroad for their studies is also on the rise. Visas issued to Pakistani students in the UK, for example, have grown from less than 5,500 in 2019 to over 35,500 in 2024.

The desire of many Pakistanis to live abroad is largely the result of their country’s weak economy, which has become characterised by high inflation, substantial public debt and limited job opportunities.

At the same time, the Pakistani government has introduced various authoritarian laws in recent years. This has included a bill passed in January 2025 that criminalised online disinformation – a law its critics say is designed to quash dissent.

Pakistan’s government has also installed a national internet firewall, enabling the authorities to monitor online traffic and regulate the use of popular apps. The initiative has sparked concerns about its potential to stifle protest.

With reduced space to demand change from their government, many people in Pakistan are seeing no option but to move abroad.

Sanwal Hussain does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Which countries people are fleeing from – and why – https://theconversation.com/which-countries-people-are-fleeing-from-and-why-268930

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Yerzhan Tokbolat, Lecturer in Finance, Queen’s University Belfast

Russia’s wartime economy is getting weaker as the war in Ukraine approaches its fourth anniversary, according to a recent report by PeaceRep, a research group led by the University of Edinburgh. The report, Against the Clock? Why Russia’s War Economy is Running Out of Time, finds that Russia is being forced to spend aggressively on the war, while its earning abilities have dropped significantly.

The funding source used to finance much of this spending, Russia’s sovereign wealth fund, also looks to be dwindling. According to the report, around 76% of the fund’s US$148 billion (£110 billion) pre-war liquid reserves was spent within the first three years of the war.

In an article in May, I argued that Russian leader Vladimir Putin could afford a drawn-out war because he had spent more than 20 years preparing for it. Under Putin’s leadership Russia has consistently posted budget surpluses, amassed foreign currency reserves and reduced its reliance on western debt.

The question now is how far can that preparation carry the Russian economy? For the moment, it appears Russia can still sustain the war. But it can do so only by drawing heavily on earlier buffers, such as foreign reserves and the sovereign wealth fund, while diverting an ever-growing share of national resources towards the military.

The strain on Russia’s economy is being compounded by mounting external pressures. The EU, which is currently the largest buyer of Russian liquefied natural gas (LNG) and pipeline gas, announced in early December that it would end its imports of Russian LNG in 2026. Imports of pipeline gas will end the following year.

But Russia’s revenue streams have remained relatively resilient throughout the war. Russia has diversified its exports of crude oil, with China now accounting for around 47%, India about 38% and Turkey roughly 6%. These revenue flows, together with earlier economic preparation, have helped sustain the three core areas that shape any wartime economy: industrial output, fiscal capacity and social resilience.

According to 2024 analysis by the Centre for Economic Policy Research, war-related output in Russia surged by about 60% in the early years of the conflict. That expansion still underpins Russia’s industrial base today. War-related industries have accounted for almost all of manufacturing growth since the invasion.

Energy revenues also continue to bolster the federal budget, though the government is relying increasingly on domestic borrowing and reserve drawdowns to fund deficits. And on the household side, higher wages in military-linked sectors and targeted government payments to the families of mobilised soldiers have helped soften the impact of inflation. Income from mobilisation has even lifted household savings, particularly in poorer regions of Russia.

Yet this appearance of stability reflects an economy being stretched rather than strengthened. Defence-related activity now dominates manufacturing, drawing labour and capital away from civilian sectors. Civilian industries are losing workers, machinery and investment, which is deepening structural stagnation and will make future economic recovery more difficult. What looks like resilience is, in practice, a system operating under growing strain.

Russia’s unsustainable economy

The central question now is how long can Russia’s remaining buffers support its militarised economy? Labour shortages have become structural rather than temporary, and inflationary pressures have persisted even amid weakening growth. Demographic pressures add to this squeeze, with mobilisation, emigration and long-term population decline shrinking the workforce available to both industry and the military.

Technological limits are tightening too. Export controls have cut Russia off from many advanced components, increasing reliance on parallel imports and domestic substitutes that are often more expensive or less reliable. This is slowing production and constraining the sophistication of new military systems.

A notable shift is also emerging in how the war is financed. With industry and labour close to capacity, and the EU phasing out Russian gas, the government can no longer rely on economic expansion or strong energy revenues to support the budget.

The new three-year budget, submitted to parliament in late September, raises VAT and expands the tax burden on small businesses. This will pass more of the cost of the war on to households and firms, a model that will only remain viable while the public tolerates higher taxes and gradually declining living standards. That makes its long-term sustainability uncertain.

How long Russia can continue fighting will also depend on forces beyond its borders. China and India are essential buyers of Russian oil, slowing the point at which fiscal pressures fully tighten. Meanwhile, tighter US and EU sanctions are constraining Russia’s access to advanced technology and complicating the logistics of foreign trade.

Geopolitics adds another layer of uncertainty. The latest US-drafted peace proposal for Ukraine echoes several longstanding Russian demands, while a major corruption scandal in Kyiv has weakened Ukraine’s political position at a sensitive moment.

These developments do not remove Russia’s economic vulnerabilities. But they do shape the environment in which Moscow navigates them, lowering the political cost of continuing the war even as economic pressures rise.

Russia’s war economy is not collapsing, but neither is it stable. It survives by pushing strain into the future – into labour markets, public finances and the everyday lives of Russian households.

The key question is how long the system can keep absorbing these pressures before they begin to reinforce one another. In that sense, Russia’s wartime economy still has time – but it is increasingly time borrowed from the future.

Yerzhan Tokbolat does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Russia’s war economy is not collapsing, but neither is it stable – https://theconversation.com/russias-war-economy-is-not-collapsing-but-neither-is-it-stable-271700

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Catherine Manning, Associate Professor in Psychology, University of Birmingham

It is the time of year when decorations appear everywhere and everyone has a preferred style, from bright flashing lights to something more understated. Christmas decorations are meant to be cheerful, yet for some people, certain types of visual input can be surprisingly difficult to tolerate.

No one wants to dampen the festive mood, but it is worth knowing that decorations can cause discomfort in ways that are easy to overlook.

Flashing lights are a familiar Christmas choice, probably because they grab attention. We have known for a long time that flashing lights can trigger seizures in people with epilepsy because rapid flashes can synchronise activity in parts of the brain that are already more susceptible to overstimulation.

Autistic people can also be sensitive to flashing lights because many autistic people have heightened sensory responsiveness. People with migraines may be affected because bright, flickering contrast can stimulate the visual cortex and lead to headaches.

Even without these conditions, flashing lights can feel unpleasant. Faster flashes are usually worse. Anything above three flashes per second tends to more easily overload the visual cortex.

Since many modern lights have adjustable settings, slowing the flash rate or turning the flash off entirely can make the display more comfortable for people who are sensitive to this type of stimulation.

Invisible flicker

Lights can also be uncomfortable even when they appear steady. Some produce a rapid flicker that is too fast for you to see. A quick way to check is to record the lights on your phone using the video “slo mo” setting. Invisible flicker can affect reading ability,
cause headaches and increase visual fatigue.

People with sensory sensitivities, which can include heightened sensitivity to noise, touch, light, colour contrast or movement, are especially likely to be affected by flicker. Researchers are still exploring how flicker affects different groups, and the precise mechanism is not fully understood. But we know that certain lights bother some people far more than others.

Keep cool or stay warm?

When buying white Christmas lights, you will usually see two options. Cool white resembles bright daylight and warm white looks more like sunrise or sunset.

In general, cooler light can help with concentration because it mimics the colour temperature of daylight, which signals alertness to the brain. Warmer light tends to feel more relaxing as it resembles evening light when you are winding down. The choice depends on the atmosphere you want to create.

Warmer light can be particularly welcome when it is cold outside because it can make people feel physically warmer. People with sensory sensitivities, including many autistic people, may prefer warm white because cool white can feel harsher on the eyes, which makes it more uncomfortable to look at for long periods.

Festive colour schemes often rely on red and green. Red, however, is widely reported to be the most uncomfortable colour. One reason is because the photoreceptors responding to red light lead to more brain activity in the gamma range, which is a fast brain rhythm.

Discomfort is greater when red is a deep red or when it flickers. It can also feel more intrusive when displayed next to strong contrasting colours such as green or blue . Choosing reds and greens that are closer in tone to each other and avoiding alternating red and green lights can help reduce the strain.

Brightness also matters. Brighter lights are generally more uncomfortable for most people, and this is particularly true for people with sensory processing differences. Strong light feels more intense and can trigger quicker fatigue or discomfort.

For many people, visual discomfort caused by lights is mild and passes quickly. For others, it can lead to tiredness, nausea, headaches and feeling overwhelmed. People vary widely in how sensitive they are. Knowing that not everyone experiences decorations in the same way is a simple step to support friends and family. Something as small as changing a light setting or switching off certain decorations when someone visits can genuinely help.

Christmas decorations bring joy and brighten the darkest months of the year. With a little thought about how different lights and colours affect people, we can keep the festive sparkle while making the season more comfortable for everyone.

Catherine Manning currently receives funding from the Medical Research Council and The Leverhulme Trust, and has previously received funding from the Wellcome Trust.

Arnold J Wilkins has previously received funding from the Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust.

– ref. Bright, flickering and flashing lights really can be bad for you – here’s how to have a visually comfortable Christmas – https://theconversation.com/bright-flickering-and-flashing-lights-really-can-be-bad-for-you-heres-how-to-have-a-visually-comfortable-christmas-271502

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Sascha Stollhans, Professor of Language Education and Linguistics, University of Leeds

The government has announced that the UK will be re-joining the Erasmus+ programme. Young people will be able to participate in the scheme again from January 2027.

Erasmus+ is a European Union programme that offers opportunities for students, teachers, and young people to study, train, volunteer or gain work experience abroad. The scheme aims to improve skills, promote cultural exchange, foster inclusion and strengthen cooperation between educational institutions and organisations.

When the UK left the European Union in 2020, it also decided to withdraw from Erasmus+. The Turing scheme, the government’s replacement, has faced a lot of criticism due to its limited scope and difficult processes.

The news about the UK re-joining Erasmus+ will feel like an early Christmas present to many who have been campaigning for this over the past few years. Indeed, international mobility programmes offer a range of benefits to young people (and not so young people). They can play a major part in an educational journey.

Here are six benefits that the UK will be regaining when it becomes a member of Erasmus+ again.

1. Being part of a long established network

The Erasmus programme was founded in 1987. Thanks to its 38-year-old history, the scheme benefits from tried-and-tested processes and a wide-ranging infrastructure. Having funded and supported over 16 million people over the years, Erasmus+ is built on a wealth of experience and firmly established international partnerships. It’s an accessible and well-supported programme.

2. Generous support for people from all walks of life

Participants in the Erasmus+ scheme are exempt from oversees tuition and examination fees. They also receive scholarships to subsidise their travel and living costs, which makes the experience more affordable.

We often associate Erasmus+ with students spending a term or more at an overseas university. But its focus is actually much broader. It includes opportunities to study, work, train, volunteer and even develop careers in sports coaching abroad.

3. Cultural and personal growth

For students, trainees and educators alike, international mobility programmes provide opportunities to experience other cultural contexts and gain different perspectives. They enable young people to develop their adaptability and cultural awareness, and, not least, their language skills.

They are also an a opportunity to make lifelong international friends, and potentially even more. A survey of over 55,000 students found that a quarter of those that had taken part in Erasmus+ met their life partner during their time abroad.

4. Reciprocal benefits

A major advantage of the Erasmus+ scheme is that it is a reciprocal programme. Member countries both send and receive participants. UK educational institutions and the wider community gain a lot by welcoming exchange students from other countries.

For higher education, for example, having students from different parts of the world on campus gives local students the chance to learn about other cultures right on their doorstep. Everyday interactions in classrooms, group work and social activities help build understanding, curiosity and respect for different ways of thinking and living.

International exchange students also contribute fresh ideas, skills and life experiences shaped by their home countries and education systems. Beyond campuses, local communities and economies benefit from increased cultural diversity and global connections.

5. Improved academic outcomes and employability

Taking part in international mobility programmes is not just beneficial for personal growth, but might also improve academic outcomes and chances on the job market.

Some research studies suggest that undergraduate students who have participated in Erasmus+ achieve better results on average. In any case, employers value international experiences and the agility and open-mindedness that participants in international mobility programmes have often developed.

6. Closer relationships with international partners

There are a lot of educational benefits of rejoining Erasmus+, but there may also be wider political and economic ones.

While having more graduates with intercultural experiences will be beneficial in itself, today’s news may also be a significant step towards a renewed relationship with the EU. And building bridges is never a bad thing.

Sascha Stollhans does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. UK to re-join Erasmus+ – here are six benefits of the European exchange scheme – https://theconversation.com/uk-to-re-join-erasmus-here-are-six-benefits-of-the-european-exchange-scheme-272278

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Juliet Wakefield, Senior Lecturer in Social Psychology, Nottingham Trent University

Christmas is usually seen as a time of light, warmth, and happiness. However, in Europe there is a long tradition of people embracing the darker side by telling ghost stories during the festive season.

One of the most famous Christmas stories of all, A Christmas Carol, is essentially a ghost story. Indeed, Mark Gatiss’s well-received staging of the play is currently running under the name A Christmas Carol: A Ghost Story at London’s Alexandra Palace Theatre. But what is the psychology behind people who enjoy hearing, reading and watching ghost stories at Christmas?

One important reason comes from Christmas’s winter setting (in the northern hemisphere at least). The short days and long nights of winter provide us with the opportunity for reflection on dark topics such as the supernatural.

The stark contrast between our warm homes and the coldness outside can create the sense of a liminal space (from the Latin word limen, meaning threshold) between light and dark, and between the end of the old year and the beginning of a new one. This can encourage reflection on liminal beings that cannot easily be defined or understood, such as ghosts and spirits.

The religious themes of Christmas also encourage many people to lean into the supernatural. Although for Christians the Christmas story is about the joy surrounding Jesus’s birth, the spectre of his death and resurrection are never far away.

Many Christmas carols mention Jesus’s eventual death, such as We Three Kings, which describes the Wise Men giving the baby Jesus the gift of myrrh, a herb used to prepare bodies for burial:

Myrrh is mine, its bitter perfume

breathes a life of gathering gloom,

sorrowing, sighing, bleeding, dying,

sealed in the stone-cold tomb.

Ghost stories, which often encompass themes such as judgement and retribution, have also often been intertwined with religious perspectives of morality. It has been argued that the rise in the popularity of ghost stories during the Victorian era was in part due to their attempt to inject Christian values into modern secular society, with Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol a prime example.

Psychology of spookiness

The psychological value of the ghost story’s communal experience should not be underestimated. The seminal ghost story writer M.R. James began telling his stories to students and friends at Christmas Eve parties at the University of Cambridge. Gatherings like this create an ideal setting for sharing stories. The thrill and suspense of collectively engaging with a spooky tale can not only entertain, it can create a sense of bondedness and shared identity, which, as I have shown in my research can benefit people’s wellbeing.

Research has also shown that collective continuity – the ability to maintain values and ideas over time by passing them on to the next generation – enhances wellbeing. Telling ghost stories, like all Christmas traditions, is a clear example of collective continuity.

One way this can enhance wellbeing is by helping people to cope with the prospect of their own death. Terror management theory argues that people manage the fear of their own death by investing in social groups. This essentially allows them to transcend death by being part of a collective that is more enduring than themselves: even after they have gone, the group will remain.

Ensuring that social groups have strong values and traditions (such as storytelling) allows this sense of transcendence to be maintained. The telling of ghost stories offers an additional layer to this continuity. Like horror in general, these stories allow us to explore our fears and reflections on mortality in a safe and supportive environment with like-minded people.

Many ghost stories also encapsulate themes of continuity, such as spirits from the past engaging with people living in the present. The ancient winter festival of Yule (which long predates Christmas) is strongly linked to ideas of continuity and involves ceremonies designed to honour one’s ancestors.

So where should you begin if you want to get into Christmas ghost stories this year? You may wish to start with some modern examples. Master of the ghost story Mark Gatiss has been writing Christmas ghost stories for the BBC for the past few years. His next instalment A Room in the Tower, based on E.F. Benson’s short story, will be on BBC2 at 10pm on Christmas Eve. Interestingly, Benson’s love of ghost stories developed from his attendance of M.R. James’s storytelling events at Cambridge.

Gatiss’s League of Gentlemen co-writers Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton have also created an excellent Christmas ghost story in The Bones of St. Nicholas. Part of their anthology series Inside No. 9, it is available on BBC iPlayer. You can also buy DVDs of the classic BBC Christmas ghost stories, including Dickens’s The Signalman and M.R. James’s Whistle and I’ll Come To You.

There are also excellent anthologies of written Christmas ghost stories, such as Chill Tidings. Wishing you all the best for the spooky Christmas season!

This article features references to books that have been included for editorial reasons, and may contain links to bookshop.org; if you click on one of the links and go on to buy something, The Conversation UK may earn a commission.

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Juliet Wakefield does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why do so many love a good ghost story at Christmas? A psychologist explains – https://theconversation.com/why-do-so-many-love-a-good-ghost-story-at-christmas-a-psychologist-explains-271782