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Source: The Conversation – UK – By Adi Imsirovic, Lecturer in Energy Systems, University of Oxford

The capture of former Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro by the US intelligence services and armed forces has resulted in a frenzy of speculation about its consequences. But there is no doubt that the events were closely linked to the oil riches of the country. While the political situation in Venezuela remains fluid, there is far more certainty about its position as an oil producer.

For a start, Venezuela has one of the highest proven oil reserves in the world. The number frequently thrown around is 300 billion barrels, more than any other country, including Saudi Arabia.

But it’s important to be cautious about the numbers coming from the outside of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Statistics used within the OECD clearly distinguish between proved, probable, possible and contingent reserves and require consistency over time.

Proven reserves are defined as the oil in the ground that can be extracted economically, with the prevailing technology. It is a variable, not a constant – and the Venezuelan reserves estimate goes back to 2008.

As oil prices increase, the reserves increase too. This is because higher profits can justify the higher costs of extracting additional oil that would otherwise remain in the ground.

Initial production is usually easy due to the natural gas pressure of the well. Over time, this pressure falls and additional measures such as gas and water injection may have to be used – and these are expensive.

In 2008, the international oil prices approached US$140 (£104) a barrel. Currently, most of the Venezuelan oil sells at a US$25 discount to the Brent benchmark, at around US$35 a barrel. All other things being equal, the current proven oil reserves may be well below 100 billion barrels – less than a third of the figure that’s frequently cited.

The problem with Venezuela’s oil

Most Venezuelan oil is very heavy (tar-like) and contains a lot of sulphur. This makes production and transportation very expensive. Heavy oil needs to be diluted with naphtha (a liquid hydrocarbon) or gas oil first, and sulphur must be removed during the processing with expensive hydrogen.

Only very sophisticated refineries on the US Gulf Coast and some new refineries in India, the Middle East and China can process this kind of oil. It is no coincidence that Venezuelan oil is sold at huge discounts relative to other grades.

American oil companies started their activities in Venezuela almost a century ago, and by 1960s, the US was the largest foreign investor in the country. In line with most countries in the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (Opec), the Venezuelan oil industry was nationalised in 1971 and turned into the country’s oil monopoly, Petróleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA).

The Venezuelan oil industry then suffered from decades of political mismanagement, purges and US sanctions. Due to the lack of investment, production in the country has fallen from over three million barrels a day (mbd) in the early 2000s to below one mbd last year (see the graph below). This decline was particularly noticeable during the Maduro regime when the ruling party used PDVSA as a cash cow, investing little or nothing back into the industry.

Read more:
What does international law tell us about the US seizure of an oil tanker off the coast of Venezuela?

Due to the state of the oil sector, even a relatively small increase in oil production in Venezuela would require billions of dollars of investment. A significant increase would require years of massive funding – even with a stable political environment.

It is not clear that events in Venezuela will have any significant immediate impact on the global oil market. The initial reaction was for the oil price to fall. But the global oil market is oversupplied right now and even the total loss of Venezuelan exports (which is unlikely) would have only a minor impact on the prices.

The decline of Venezuelan oil production:

In the long term, the state of the industry can only improve (barring wars and civil strife). Additional barrels from Venezuela would only make life harder for Opec and other producers by making the oversupply worse. Indeed, oil prices tumbled again after US President Donald Trump vowed to seize up to 50 million barrels of Venezuelan oil.

Claims that the events would hurt China seem overblown. China (together with India) has been a major buyer of Venezuelan oil, but it represented no more than 5% of the volume of Chinese imports. Canada is another producer of heavy oil, and it has been shifting its exports from the US to China for some time. This trend is likely to continue.

Overall, there is little economic rationale for a “takeover” of the Venezuelan oil industry. If the US wanted Venezuelan oil, it could simply have lifted the sanctions imposed by Trump in 2019 and let their oil companies buy it, like everyone else.

It is the long-term political consequences of this legally dubious US action that are worrying the oil market. President Trump appears to have a growing appetite for military adventure which may include further attacks on Iran, a major oil-producing nation and a member of Opec.

Nobody is quite sure what Trump may do next, and the US action may also be used to legitimise Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. This had already rattled energy markets. The last thing the oil market needs right now is more uncertainty.

Adi Imsirovic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. What the US strike on Venezuela could mean for global oil prices – https://theconversation.com/what-the-us-strike-on-venezuela-could-mean-for-global-oil-prices-272858

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Stuart Salmon, Tutor in History, University of Stirling; University of Edinburgh

Any discussion of films and TV series about the American revolution has to start with a caveat. There have been historical movies for as long as there have been movies, but films and TV series about the great founding event of the US have been thin on the ground, certainly until the 21st century.

In 1917, an American director was even prosecuted for making Spirit of 76, a film about the revolution that criticised America’s new ally Great Britain. It wasn’t until 1985 that Hollywood tried a big budget retelling of the American revolution, with Revolution (1985).

Sadly the Al Pacino vehicle, while spectacular, had an incoherent storyline and was an unmistakable flop. It was another 15 years before Hollywood tried again with The Patriot (2000). The Patriot was more financially successful but arguably even less popular among the historical community (including myself).

Amid all these flops, however, a few gems emerged in a different medium – television. I’m a historian of the American revolution and these are my favourite ways the story has been told on TV.

Read more:
During World War I, a silent film spoke volumes about freedom of speech

1. Turn: Washington’s Spies (2014-17)

This four season AMC TV series stars Jamie Bell as patriot spy Abraham Woodhull, who was a leading figure George Washinton’s successful spy network, the Culper Ring. The series was based on the book Washington’s Spies by Alexander Rose (2006).

The series has 40 episodes, and each one is action packed. For me, it conjures up the secret war of the revolution brilliantly. The series explores some of the most intriguing characters of the war of independence, but most interesting for me was Ksenia Solo’s interpretation of Peggy Shippen, an American woman who spied for the British then married patriot hero Benedict Arnold and helped him defect to the British. This is a major plot line in the later seasons.

The series’ main villain was British officer John Graves Simcoe (Samuel Roukin), whose historical counterpart was a very different character to the one portrayed in the series. His memoir is one of the key primary sources for the British experience of the war of independence. I have been lucky enough to read Simcoe’s handwritten copy.

2. John Adams (2008)

This wonderful HBO miniseries stars Paul Giamatti and Laura Linney as John and Abigail Adams, the power couple of the American revolution. The series is based on the book John Adams by David McCullough (2001). Linney and Giamatti both won Emmy awards for the show and brilliantly portray their complex but likeable characters.

While John Adams is in the title, his wife Abigail has an equal role in the series. My favourite scene is where Abigail puts herself and her children in smallpox quarantine in revolutionary war Boston. This happened as shown and sheds light on the bizarre quarantine regime where people would sew small particles of smallpox spores into their skin and shut themselves away for at least two weeks in the hope of catching a lighter version of the disease but building immunity.

The series creates a great picture of two hugely influential figures in the American revolution and the history of the US. The couple arguably established many of the key features of the role of president and first lady. They wrote each other thousands of letters in their 54 year marriage but the most fascinating is Abigail’s letter to John on the eve of the Declaration of Independence (John played the key role in getting it passed by Congress). She urges John to “remember the ladies”. It is a hugely important early feminist document, which is now widely used as a teaching aid.

3. Franklin (2024)

This Apple TV+ miniseries is based on the book Dr Franklin Goes to France: How America Was Born in Monarchist Europe by Stacy Schiff (2005). It chronicles Benjamin Franklin’s attempts to get an alliance with France during the war of independence.

Directed by Tim Van Patten and featuring a strong performance by Michael Douglas in the titular role the series covers some of the same historical ground as John Adams. Both Adams (played by Eddie Marsan) and Franklin spent much of the revolutionary war in Europe attempting to secure alliances with the European powers.

This series is very entertaining and gives a warts and all picture of Franklin as a septuagenarian. For an account of the young Franklin, his autobiography is well worth a read and it also gives a great picture of life in colonial Pennsylvania.

4. Liberty! The American Revolution (1997)

If there was just one film or TV series that inspired me to study, write about and teach the American revolution, it was this six-part documentary. It reached me at exactly the right time – about a year before I began my final year undergraduate course on the American revolution.

The series contains contributions from some of the key historians of the American revolution, such as Pauline Maier, Gordon Wood and Bernard Bailyn. It also has readings of the words of participants on both sides of the American revolution by actors including a pre-fame Phillip Seymour Hoffman. The wide-ranging coverage spawned an excellent tie-in book.

While it did not neglect to show the diversity of the American revolution, more attention could have been paid the contributions of women, African Americans and Indigenous Americans. Historian Gary Nash’s book the Unknown American Revolution (2005) was one of key works in recognising this diversity. There have been other documentaries on the American revolution but it was this one which shaped the course of my career in history.

5. Hamilton (2021)

While technically a televised stage show (available to watch on Disney+), Hamilton is undoubtedly the most popular work of media with an American revolutionary theme. Drawing on Ron Chernow’s biography of the first US treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton, Lin Manuel Miranda’s hip-hop musical tells the tale of it’s eponymous founding father with amazing energy and humour.

I have been intrigued by the musical’s anti-hero/villain Aaron Burr since reading Gore Vidal’s novel Burr (1973) as a teenager and Leslie Odom Jr. does a wonderful job at bringing across the conflicted third vice president. Jonathan Groff, meanwhile, nearly steals the whole film as George III, despite only appearing for a few minutes.

The film covers the years 1776 to 1804 without seeming to miss many momentous events. While the best way to see Hamilton is live, until there is a big-budget film adaptation this is only way to enjoy the show with the original Broadway cast. Historically, it takes some liberties – Hamilton was not as enlightened on slavery as the musical suggests for example – but it gives a wonderful impression of the revolutionary era.

Do you have a favourite television show about the American Revolution that didn’t make our list? Let us know in the comments below.

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Stuart Salmon is affiliated with Universities and Colleges Union (UCU).

– ref. The five best TV shows about the American revolution – recommended by a historian – https://theconversation.com/the-five-best-tv-shows-about-the-american-revolution-recommended-by-a-historian-270612

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Dipa Kamdar, Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy Practice, Kingston University

Menopause is often described as “the change”, but for millions of women worldwide it is more than a biological milestone. It is a cultural, social and medical turning point. While most women experience menopause, their journeys are not the same. Ethnicity, culture and access to healthcare shape how symptoms are felt, understood and treated. These differences are rarely acknowledged, leaving many women invisible in public conversations about midlife health.

Menopause marks the end of reproductive years and is defined clinically as 12 months after the final menstrual period. Natural menopause usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55, with the average age in the UK being 51. The transition that leads up to it, known as perimenopause, can last several years and is characterised by fluctuating hormone levels, particularly oestrogen.

Up to 80 percent of women develop symptoms linked to falling levels of oestrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Researchers have identified more than 40 possible symptoms. Because oestrogen acts on receptors throughout the body, its loss is associated with increased risks of long-term health issues such as osteoporosis, heart disease, diabetes and mood disorders.

Symptoms vary widely. Hot flushes, night sweats and sleep disturbances are common, as are mood changes, joint pain, vaginal dryness and reduced libido. Symptoms can last an average of seven years. Although these effects are widespread, their intensity and meaning differ across cultures. Research including the The Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation and further work by the British Menopause Society highlights notable variations in how menopause is experienced. There appear to be some differences in hormonal patterns across ethnic groups, although more research is needed to understand why symptoms differ.

Women of African and Caribbean descent tend to experience more severe and longer-lasting vasomotor symptoms, including hot flushes and night sweats. Sleep problems, mental health issues and weight gain are also reported more often. Cultural expectations and stigma can make open discussion difficult, leaving many women without appropriate support.

Women of South Asian descent (India, Pakistan and neighbouring regions) tend to reach menopause earlier, with average ages around 46 to 47 years compared with 51 in western populations. Earlier menopause increases the risk of long-term health conditions such as heart disease. South Asian women also report more urogenital symptoms, such as vaginal dryness, urinary issues and reduced libido. However, conversation about sexual health is often limited due to cultural norms.

Women of East Asian descent (China, Japan and others) often report fewer hot flushes but more musculoskeletal pain, forgetfulness and low libido. In many East Asian cultures, menopause is viewed as a natural stage of ageing, which reduces the likelihood of seeking medical support.

Women of White European heritage report vasomotor symptoms more frequently than East Asian women, but often with less intensity than those experienced by African and Caribbean women. Although access to healthcare is generally greater, inequalities still affect diagnosis and treatment.

Across many minority communities, social stigma and cultural silence remain significant barriers. In some cultures, menopause is associated with loss of femininity or fertility, discouraging women from discussing symptoms. In others it is viewed as a natural process that does not require medical input. Some women prefer natural approaches to symptom management, often due to cultural beliefs or limited trust in medical interventions.

Practical barriers make access to care even more difficult. Language barriers can prevent effective communication with clinicians. Health literacy gaps mean many women are unaware of options such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Educational materials often lack representation, with leaflets failing to depict women from diverse backgrounds. Many women report feeling dismissed when seeking help. Socioeconomic inequalities including lower income and limited access to healthcare further widen gaps in symptom management and long-term health outcomes. These issues are compounded by mistrust of the healthcare system, often rooted in historical and ongoing inequities.

For the first time, women aged 40 to 74 attending NHS health checks will now be asked about menopausal symptoms. By embedding menopause into routine checks, policymakers hope to normalise discussion, improve diagnosis and ensure that all women receive appropriate support. However, the benefits may not be evenly distributed. Evidence shows that some women from ethnically minoritised communities are less likely to access these health checks, particularly those who already face barriers to recognition and treatment. If uptake remains unequal, the policy may unintentionally reinforce disparities rather than address them. The challenge for the NHS will be to adapt outreach and service delivery so that menopause support reaches the women who need it most.

Addressing these inequalities requires culturally sensitive healthcare. Information needs to be available in multiple languages and formats, including clear explanations of symptoms, consequences and treatment options, both hormonal and non hormonal. Healthcare professionals must be trained to recognise cultural differences in how symptoms are described and interpreted. Women also need safe spaces to discuss their experiences without judgement.

Menopause is not only a phase of symptom management. It is a critical stage for long-term health. Menopause is universal, but its experience is not. Biological variation, cultural norms and systemic inequalities shape how women navigate this transition. Recognising these differences is essential for building equitable healthcare that supports all women, regardless of ethnicity or culture, through one of life’s most significant milestones.

Dipa Kamdar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. The menopause gap: why some women suffer more and get less care – https://theconversation.com/the-menopause-gap-why-some-women-suffer-more-and-get-less-care-272753

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Thomas Allen, Senior Lecturer, Department of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University

Metamaterials – artificially made materials with properties that aren’t found in the natural world – are poised to transform daily life. Their unique properties are enhancing products from sporting goods to consumer electronics and beyond.

As a sports engineer and the person leading on health applications within the UKRI-funded UK Metamaterials Network, I have unique insights into how metamaterials are enhancing sporting goods.

Specifically, they are helping to make sport and exercise more accessible, inclusive, and safer.

Metamaterials are made with meta-atoms (Figure 1). These building blocks have a specific geometry that has been engineered to allow the material to perform specific functions and have particular properties. Their functions may be related to acoustics, chemistry, electromagnetism, magnetism, or the material’s mechanical properties.

Metamaterials and sport

Metamaterials sit between products and materials. They are not materials in the traditional sense because their design is intrinsically linked to that of the product they are used within to enhance performance.

The rapid-uptake, multibillion dollar sporting goods sector has relatively low barriers to market entry, making it an ideal space for testing new and emerging technologies.

As a result, it has been an early adopter of metamaterials, particularly mechanical metamaterials (Figure 2), as described in an Institution of Mechanical Engineers report on sports engineering.

Auxetic metamaterials have been widely explored and adopted within sporting goods. Auxetic behaviour is an example of a “negative property”, achievable with metamaterials (Figure 3). Materials with negative properties behave in the opposite way to conventional expectations. When we stretch a conventional material lengthwise, its cross section will contract.

Auxetic metamaterials behave in the opposite way, with their cross section expanding when we stretch them lengthwise. This unusual and counterintuitive behaviour can improve the performance of sporting goods. The property is described by something called Poisson’s ratio, which is a measure of the deformation in a material in response to the direction of loading (force).

Auxetic metamaterials can improve comfort, fit, and impact protection in products such as body protection and helmets. They exhibit synclastic curvature, meaning they form a “dome shape” when bent, which may improve the fit of helmets and knee pads, for example.

Their enhanced indentation resistance allows for more flexible body protection that can still protect against concentrated loads, such as from impacts with rocks and studs. Auxetics can also control unwanted vibrations, which is useful in equipment like bats, bikes, rackets, skis, and snowboards. Other examples of sporting goods featuring mechanical metamaterial geometries include airless basketballs, bike saddles, and footwear.

The potential for metamaterials extends beyond traditional sporting goods. They could help people with disabilities and injuries to play sport and exercise. Potential applications span braces, prosthetics, orthotics, and rehabilitation devices. Because such items are typically classed as medical devices, they are subject to more stringent regulations than sporting goods, posing challenges for the uptake of metamaterials.

Other types of metamaterials besides mechanical could bring benefits to the sport and exercise sector. This includes metamaterial-enhanced products that could actively adapt their properties to fit the movement pattern, shape, and size of the user. For these reasons, metamaterials have the potential to make sport and exercise products more inclusive for a diverse range of users.

Metamaterial research in the UK

Metamaterials are engineered to have extraordinary properties that make products smaller, lighter, simpler, and more powerful. On December 1, 2025, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers published a policy report on unlocking the potential of metamaterials. The report was produced in partnership with our UK Metamaterials Network. It offers a perspective on how we can harness metamaterials to drive innovation, strengthen industry and address global challenges.

That said, several challenges must be addressed for their full potential to be realised. First, the UK must continue doing fundamental research to remain globally competitive in this field. Second, adoption by industry is slow, highlighting the need to bridge research and commercialisation.

Third, metamaterial prototypes are often made using methods that are not well-suited for mass production, limiting their potential to be scaled up. Fourth, a skilled workforce is needed to develop and deploy these technologies effectively. Raising awareness, establishing shared definitions, and testing products featuring metamaterials against agreed standards are critical to drive adoption and foster public trust.

Challenges of metamaterials in sport

Appropriate standards and regulations in sport help designers, increase consumer confidence in products, and support international trade. Sports products must often comply with safety standards and rules set by sports governing bodies. There may even be value in having specific standards for metamaterials, offering unified definitions and test frameworks.

Manufacturing presents another challenge. Metamaterials used within sporting goods are typically made using established methods like 3D printing, machining, and injection moulding. Because the enhanced properties of metamaterials often rely on complex geometric arrangements, they can be costly and slow to mass produce. This highlights a need for efficient manufacturing methods.

Despite these challenges, metamaterials are becoming increasingly common in sporting goods. I have only highlighted a few in this article, but I would imagine that they will become even more commonplace in the future. Being able to tailor unique material properties to their function, as well as making them suited to specific individuals, makes metamaterials a powerful tool for sports engineers.

This is a really exciting time for metamaterials in the UK, and in the sports engineering sector, specifically. I am looking forward to seeing this specialised technology continue to make sport and exercise more accessible, inclusive, and safer.

Thomas Allen receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) as a co-investigator of the UK Metamaterials Network. He worked with HEAD Sport GmbH on auxetic composites for rackets and supervises a PhD student funded by Rheon Labs Ltd. He was an author of the IMechE reports on metamaterials and sports engineering.

– ref. ‘Metamaterials’ could transform our lives – and sports equipment is at the vanguard – https://theconversation.com/metamaterials-could-transform-our-lives-and-sports-equipment-is-at-the-vanguard-270840