Category: The Conversation – USA

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Zhixin Wang, Postdoctoral Researcher in Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara

The 2025 Nobel Prize in physics honors three quantum physicists – John Clarke, Michel H. Devoret and John M. Martinis – for their study of quantum mechanics in a macroscopic electrical circuit.

Since the prize announcement, cheers and excitement have surrounded the home institutions of these laureates in Berkeley, Santa Barbara and New Haven.

The award of this prestigious prize to pioneering research in quantum physics coincides with the 100th anniversary of the birth of quantum mechanics – a revolutionary scientific theory that forms the foundation of modern physics.

Quantum mechanics was originally formulated to explain and predict the perplexing behaviors of atoms, molecules and subatomic particles. It has since paved the way for a wide range of practical applications, including precision measurement, laser technology, medical imaging and, probably the most far-reaching of all, semiconductor electronic devices and computer chips.

Yet numerous aspects of the quantum world have long remained mysterious to scientists and engineers. From an experimental point of view, the tiny scale of microscopic particles poses outstanding challenges for studying the subtle laws of quantum mechanics in laboratory settings.

The promises of quantum machines

Since the closing decades of the past century, researchers around the world have sought to precisely isolate, control and measure individual physical objects, such as single photons and atomic ions, that display quantum behaviors under very specific experimental conditions. These endeavors have given rise to the emerging field of quantum engineering, which aims to utilize the peculiarities of quantum physics for groundbreaking technological innovations.

One of the most promising directions is quantum information processing, whose goal is to design and implement machines that can encode, process, transmit and detect information in “strange” quantum manners: For instance, an object can be in a superposition of different states at the same time. Distant objects can manifest quantum entanglement – remote correlations that escape all possible classical interpretation. Compared with their conventional electronics predecessors, quantum information machines could have advantages in specific tasks of computation, simulation, cryptography and sensing.

The realization of such quantum machines would require experimenters having access to reliable physical components that can be assembled and controlled on the human scale, yet fully obey quantum mechanics. Counterintuitive as it might sound, can we break the implicit boundaries of the natural world and bring microscopic physical laws into the macroscopic reality?

Quantum mechanics in an electrical circuit

In 1985, the three Nobel laureates – then working in the same research group at the University of California, Berkeley – provided an affirmative answer to the question above. They were studying electrical circuits made of superconductors. Superconductivity is a special state of matter famous for conducting electrical currents without resistance, due to underlying quantum mechanical interactions of electrons at low temperatures. For the first time, the trio observed distinct quantum behaviors of a macroscopic physical variable.

In a superconductor, two electrons bond together to form a Cooper pair. These electron pairs condense into a macroscopic state, which can be described by a collective phase variable shared by all its microscopic constituents. In this state, trillions or more electrons effectively behave like a single entity, resembling the mass collections of atoms that form everyday objects like pendulums or billiard balls.

To observe the quantum mechanical motion of this macroscopic phase variable, the three scientists fabricated a device called the Josephson junction, which consists of two pieces of superconductors separated by an insulator layer thinner than 1/10,000 of a human hair. They discovered that, at sufficiently low temperatures (below −273 degrees Celsius, or −459 degrees Fahrenheit), the phase variable difference across the Josephson junction shows a unique quantum mechanical phenomenon known as quantum tunneling, where an object may escape a barrier without the need to climb over its summit.

Furthermore, the team exposed the Josephson junction to microwave electromagnetic radiation whose frequency is close to that of Wi-Fi signals. They measured energy levels of the circuit at discrete, or quantized, values, which are usually present only in microscopic atoms and molecules. The device used in these experiments can thus be referred to as an “artificial atom” – namely, an electrical circuit with atom-like properties, which is at once macroscopic in size, adjustable in design, and quantum mechanical in nature.

Implications and outlooks

The groundbreaking works by Clarke, Devoret and Martinis have had many profound impacts. On the fundamental level, they suggested that distinct quantum phenomena – once thought to exist only at the microscopic level – can actually manifest at much larger physical scales. In the meantime, the invention of superconducting artificial atoms has opened brand-new avenues toward building useful quantum machines with advanced engineering techniques.

Based on these discoveries, researchers – including these Nobel Prize recipients and their research groups – have made significant achievements in constructing prototype quantum computers using superconducting quantum circuits in the decades since. The elementary device unit that makes up these information processors is the superconducting quantum bit, or “qubit” for short. Each superconducting qubit is an artificial atom containing one or more Josephson junctions. Its quantum state can be precisely prepared, manipulated and measured by experimenters. The perfection and integration of superconducting qubits are among the state-of-the-art challenges in quantum information technology.

The 2025 Nobel Prize for physics recognizes original investigations in the intersection of basic and applied sciences. The prize recipients tested profound quantum mechanical hypotheses through clear and rigorous experimentation.

From those artificial atoms have emerged the audacious efforts and rapid progress in building practical quantum information machines. The combination of pure intellectual inquiries and engineering advancement has been shaping this interdisciplinary field since its creation.

This Nobel Prize is therefore a tribute to the three inventors of superconducting quantum circuits, whose inquisitive minds, broad visions and adventurous attitudes represent the true scientific spirit and will continue to inspire future generations.

Zhixin Wang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. From artificial atoms to quantum information machines: Inside the 2025 Nobel Prize in physics – https://theconversation.com/from-artificial-atoms-to-quantum-information-machines-inside-the-2025-nobel-prize-in-physics-266976

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Joanne Hsu, Research Associate Professor at the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan

The ongoing federal shutdown has resulted in a pause on regular government data releases, meaning economic data has been in short supply of late. That has left market-watchers and monetary policymakers somewhat in the dark over key indicators in the U.S. economy.

Fortunately, the University of Michigan’s Surveys of Consumers is unaffected by the impasse in Washington and released its preliminary monthly report on Oct. 10, 2025; the final read of the month will be released in two weeks.

The Conversation U.S. spoke with Joanne Hsu, the director of the Surveys of Consumers, on what the latest data shows about consumer sentiment – and whether the shutdown has left Americans feeling blue.

What is consumer sentiment?

Consumer sentiment is something that we at the University of Michigan have measured since 1946. It looks at American attitudes toward the current state of the economy and the future direction of the economy through questions on personal finances, business conditions and buying conditions for big-ticket items.

Over the decades, it has been closely followed by policymakers, business leaders, academic researchers and investors as a leading indicator of the overall state of the economy.

When sentiment is on the decline, consumers tend to pull back on spending – and that can lead to a slowdown in the economy. The opposite is also true: High or rising sentiment tends to lead to increased spending and a growing economy.

How is the survey compiled?

Every month, we interview a random sample of the U.S. population across the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia. Around 1,000 or so people take part in it every month, and we include a representative sample across ages, income, education level, demography and geography. People from across all walks of life are asked around 50 questions pertaining to the economy, personal finances, job prospects, inflation expectations and the like.

When you aggregate that all together, it gives a useful measure of the health of the U.S. economy.

What does the latest survey show?

The latest survey shows virtually no change in overall sentiment between September and October. Consumers are not feeling that optimistic at the moment, but generally no worse than they were last month.

Pocketbook issues – high prices of goods, inflation and possible weakening in the labor market – are suppressing sentiment. Views of consumers across the country converged earlier in the year when the Trump administration’s tariffs were announced. But since then, higher-wealth and higher-income consumers have reported improved consumer sentiment. It is for lower-income Americans – those not owning stock – that sentiment hasn’t lifted since April.

In October, we also saw a slight decline in inflation expectations, but it remains relatively high – midway between where they were around a year ago and the highs of around the time of the tariff announcements in April and May.

Has the government shutdown affected consumer sentiment?

The government shutdown was in place for around half the time of the latest survey period, which ran from Sept. 23-Oct. 6, 2025. And so far, we are not seeing evidence that it is impacting consumer sentiment one way or another.

And that is not super-surprising. It is not that people don’t care about the shutdown, just that it hasn’t affected how they see the economy and their personal finances yet.

History shows that federal shutdowns do move the needle a little. In 2019, around 10% of people spontaneously mentioned the then-shutdown in the January survey. We saw a decline in sentiment in that month, but it did improve again the following month.

Looking back, we tend to see stronger reaction to shutdowns when there is a debt ceiling crisis attached. In 2013, for example, there was a decline in consumer sentiment coinciding with concerns over the debt ceiling being breached. But it did quickly rebound when the government opened again.

Whether or not we see a decline in sentiment because of the current shutdown depends on how long it lasts – and how consumers believe it will impact pocketbook issues, namely prices and job prospects.

Joanne Hsu receives research funding from NIA, NIH, and various sponsors of the University of Michigan Surveys of Consumers.

– ref. Government shutdown hasn’t left consumers glum about the economy – for now, at least – https://theconversation.com/government-shutdown-hasnt-left-consumers-glum-about-the-economy-for-now-at-least-267264

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Jay L. Zagorsky, Associate Professor Questrom School of Business, Boston University

With the indictment on Oct. 9, 2025, of New York Attorney General – and longtime Donald Trump adversary – Letitia James on two criminal counts related to loans for a home purchase, mortgage fraud is back in the news.

Lisa Cook, a Federal Reserve governor, is also being investigated by the Department of Justice for allegedly making false statements when applying for a mortgage. Members of Donald Trump’s Cabinet are accused of similar wrongdoings. Could any of these people go to prison?

Mortgage fraud is not a new problem. Subprime mortgage fraud fueled the 2008 financial meltdown, when large numbers of very risky mortgages defaulted. Mortgage fraud was also a key feature of the savings and loan crisis in the 1980s.

Mortgage applications are very long, so there’s plenty of opportunity to make mistakes. Plus, they require borrowers to declare that everything is “true, accurate, and complete.” Misrepresentation can trigger potentially large civil and criminal penalties.

As a business school professor, I was curious how many people are convicted of mortgage fraud today. After all, relatively few people went to jail for fraudulent loans back in 2008. Since most mortgage fraud violates federal law, I looked at more than a decade of federal conviction data. What I found was clear: Almost no one has gone to federal prison recently for lying on a mortgage application.

What is mortgage fraud?

Mortgage fraud is when someone intentionally misrepresents facts in order to obtain a property loan. People can lie about many things on a mortgage application, such as their income, assets or employment status, or whether they will occupy the home being purchased or rent it out.

Being caught lying to get a mortgage can be costly. The maximum federal sentence is 30 years, with fines of up to US$1 million. Because more than a quarter of all mortgages are guaranteed by federal agencies, and many are acquired by quasi-government organizations like Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae, most mortgage fraud is a federal crime.

However, just because there are laws on the books doesn’t mean they’re enforced. For example, I work in Boston, where for years jaywalking has been illegal – but as any visitor quickly notices, no one pays any attention to this rule.

How many people are convicted?

The U.S. Sentencing Commission provides detailed data on every person convicted of federal crimes since 2013. The database is large, since federal courts convict almost 70,000 people each year.

However, very few people are convicted of federal mortgage fraud. Just 38 people in the country were sentenced for such crimes in 2024, and among that small group, four of the convicted got no prison time. A year earlier, just 34 people were convicted and seven avoided prison.

Over the past dozen years, fewer than 3,000 people were convicted of federal mortgage fraud, and the number of people sentenced fell steadily each year.

Three thousand people are a tiny fraction of mortgages issued. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau estimates that almost 100 million new mortgage loans were written to purchase or refinance a home over the past 12 years. For those who like precision, 3,000 is only 0.003%.

The Sentencing Commission’s files also offer insight into who gets convicted of mortgage fraud. Three-quarters were men. More than 90% were U.S. citizens. The typical person convicted of mortgage fraud is a man in his late 40s with an associate degree, the data suggests.

The real penalty

While the maximum penalty is 30 years, almost no one serves that long a sentence. In 2024, the maximum sentence handed out was just 10 years. Since 2013, 15% of those convicted got no jail time. The average sentence for people who did get jail time was 21 months, which is less than two years behind bars.

Fines are also much lighter in practice than the maximum $1 million penalty. In 2024, the maximum fine passed down was a quarter-million dollars. Since 2013, the average person convicted of mortgage fraud paid a fine of less than $6,000, with over half of all those convicted paying no fine at all.

Now not paying a fine or only paying a small one doesn’t mean there’s no financial penalty. The courts required most of those convicted to make restitution. In 2024, half of all people convicted had to pay at least a half-million dollars to reimburse their victims, such as lending companies. Over the dozen years I looked at, the average person convicted paid $2 million in restitution for their misdeeds.

More lightning strikes than convictions

It’s impossible to know how common mortgage fraud really is. Some mortgage applications are rechecked in a “post-closing audit.” However, these audits happen within 90 days after the mortgage money is disbursed. Beyond that window, if a loan is paid back on time and without problems, there’s little incentive for a bank or mortgage service provider to recheck an applicant’s information.

What is clear is that while millions of mortgages are written each year, only a tiny fraction of mortgage recipients go to jail for fraud. One way to put this tiny fraction into perspective is to compare it with the National Weather Service estimates of the approximately 270 people hit by lightning yearly. Last year, lightning hit over seven times more people than the federal government convicted of mortgage fraud.

Years ago, I filled in a mortgage application to buy a home. I was consumed with dread wondering if any application mistake would result in my being sent to jail. After looking at the mortgage fraud conviction data, I should have been more worried about being hit by lightning.

Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. NY AG Letitia James charged with mortgage fraud – a crime seldom prosecuted and rarely resulting in prison – https://theconversation.com/ny-ag-letitia-james-charged-with-mortgage-fraud-a-crime-seldom-prosecuted-and-rarely-resulting-in-prison-265242

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Julie Dobrow, Distinguished Senior Lecturer of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University

Like many star-crossed lovers, Elaine Goodale and Charles Alexander Eastman came from different worlds.

Goodale, born in 1863 to a family claiming Puritan roots, grew up on a farm in a remote part of western Massachusetts. In 1858, a baby first named Hakadah, later called Ohíye S’a, who then became widely known as Charles Alexander Eastman for most of his adult life, was born near Redwood Falls, Minnesota. A Wahpeton Santee Dakota, he fled to Manitoba, Canada, with tribal members during the 1862 Dakota War between the U.S. military and several bands of Dakota collectively known as the Santee Sioux.

In December 1890, the two unexpectedly met each other while working at the Pine Ridge Agency in the newly declared state of South Dakota. Even more improbably, they fell in love.

Just weeks later, booming Hotchkiss rifles 15 miles away signaled the start of the Wounded Knee Massacre. Federal troops ended up killing at least 250 Lakota Sioux men, women and children; the traumatic event, historian David Martínez writes, sparked “the abrupt transformation of Indian nations from geopolitical powers … to symbols of conquest.”

It also transformed Goodale and Eastman’s nascent relationship: They resolved to marry and to work together for Native American causes.

Wounded Knee, however, would also prove an unfortunate metaphor for their marriage.

In the research for my new dual biography, “Love and Loss After Wounded Knee: A Biography of an Extraordinary Interracial Marriage,” I dove into letters, photographs and hundreds of newspaper articles documenting this high-profile, late-19th-century relationship.

I came to understand that their marriage failed not only because of interpersonal tensions and a clash of values, but also because of some of the ways in which ideas about gender, race and Indigenous identity were rapidly changing in the U.S.

From writer to teacher

At 13, Goodale started publishing poetry in St. Nicholas Magazine, a popular children’s periodical. Her poems generated attention from the press, in addition to fan mail from notable men of letters, including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. By the time she was 20, she had published five books.

But because poets without family fortunes needed other means to support themselves – and because women in the late 1800s had few career options – Goodale turned to teaching. She accepted a job at Virginia’s Hampton Institute, a boarding school that was founded to teach newly emancipated Black students. It later became part of the government’s program to assimilate Native Americans.

Goodale became convinced that Indigenous children would benefit more from schools in their own communities, rather than at government- or church-run boarding schools. She traveled to the Dakota Territory and opened a day school. She also turned from poetry to prose, documenting her observations of “Indian life and education” in dozens of articles.

By the time she came to Pine Ridge Agency, the administrative offices at the Oglala Lakota Indian Reservation, she had been appointed the first supervisor of education for the Dakotas.

The ideal ‘assimilated Indian’

Ohíye S’a’s early years were marked by family trauma and U.S. government policies aimed at seizing land and displacing and assimilating Native people. His mother died shortly after he was born, and during the Dakota War it was widely believed that his father and brothers had perished. His grandmother and uncle raised him until his mid-teenage years.

In 1873, the 15-year-old was surprised to discover that his father was, in fact, alive. Jacob Eastman had taken a European-American name and converted to Christianity. He was convinced that only a formal English-language education could provide a path forward for Native people.

At his father’s urging, Ohíye S’a became “Charles Eastman,” and he also converted to Christianity. He attended a series of boarding schools before landing at Dartmouth College and then Boston University Medical School.

His white mentors saw Eastman – the only Native person in his class at either institution – as the ideal “assimilated Indian.” His achievements often appeared in newspapers with headlines like “He’s a Winner: Sioux Indian Who Got a Boston University Degree,” an allusion to the fact that “Ohíye S’a” translated to “winner.”

It isn’t clear whether Eastman ever thought of himself in that way. But throughout his life, he straddled the world in which he was raised and the one in which he was educated. His first job, as agency physician at Pine Ridge, placed him at the nexus of these two cultures.

An unlikely pair, a media sensation

After the shots rang out near Wounded Knee Creek, Eastman’s medical education was put to the test. Called into service as a nurse, Goodale also tended the wounded and dying in the makeshift hospital at a nearby church.

Six months later, Elaine and Charles were married in New York City in June 1891, much to the consternation of her family.

The couple’s nuptials appeared in hundreds of newspapers, partially due to the rarity of an interracial marriage in the 19th century. Much of the coverage was rife with racist stereotypes.

The Watertown Times in New York proclaimed, “Poetess Marries a Big Injun’”; the San Francisco Examiner ran a front-page story declaring “Fair Bride of An Indian: Elaine Goodale Weds the Red Man of Her Choice.”

Sometimes, articles focused on Charles’ educational background, often misrepresenting it by suggesting he had attended Cornell, Harvard or Yale. He was referred to as a “specimen,” with racialized language discussing his physical attributes: “He is of medium height … with all the peculiarities of his people in his features. His eyes are small and glittering, his face and nose are broad and his cheek bones very pronounced,” according to the San Francisco Examiner.

This type of media coverage – highlighting the differences between Elaine and Charles’ backgrounds, while pointedly describing Charles in stereotyped ways – would dog them throughout their marriage.

Professional travails, personal problems

Charles attempted to set up his own medical practice in St. Paul, Minnesota. But white patients proved reluctant to see “an Indian doctor,” while Native patients were hesitant to patronize a physician dispensing unfamiliar medicines. The practice failed.

Financial pressures increased over the next decade as Elaine and Charles became parents of six children. They moved frequently: Charles took on a series of jobs, including recruiting for the YMCA, lobbying on behalf of the Santee Sioux, and working as an “outing agent” at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, which involved finding summer placements for Native students with white families in a further attempt to Americanize them.

Because Charles left behind few personal papers, it’s difficult to know if he believed in this program. But it’s easy to see how it could have created an identity crisis of sorts.

At other points in his life, Charles seemed to put his Dakota identity front and center. For example, he was one of the co-founders of the Society of American Indians, an organization that worked on behalf of self-determination for Native Americans. He even served as its president in 1918. Meanwhile, his wife remained a staunch believer in assimilation.

At Elaine’s urging – and likely, under her editorial stewardship – Charles began publishing stories and then books about his “Indian Boyhood.” While Elaine continued writing and was able to publish a few books, his literary career took off and hers stalled out.

Even their children weren’t spared from the headlines. An article in the St. Paul Globe wrote, of one of the Eastman children, “… the child had not inherited any of the attractiveness of the mother. It was a veritable old squaw miniature.”

In her personal writing, Elaine never acknowledged her children as biracial. The public stereotyping and private dismissal of the Eastman children’s identities were undoubtedly another stressor in an already-stressed marriage.

Pictures worth a thousand words

After many moves, the Eastmans landed in Amherst, Massachusetts. But Charles did not stay put, embarking upon a vigorous new career on the lecture circuit.

He became one of the best-known Native Americans of his era, as well as one of the most photographed.

Sometimes Charles chose to appear in a Victorian suit and cravat. Other times he posed in traditional Sioux regalia. Often the coverage of his talks focused more on what he was wearing than the content of his lecture. Historian Kiara Vigil suggests that Charles knew that his dress functioned as an advertisement for his work, arguing that his choice of attire was strategic: “Eastman’s ability to dress up as an Indian, or not, enabled him to address diverse audiences and their expectations.”

He was away from home more than he was present, further fueling Elaine’s resentment. In personal letters, she described her bitterness at Charles leaving the children and household to her sole care, and her belief that he was reinforcing the gender roles she’d railed against. While she certainly understood that his posing in buckskin and feathered headdress was good marketing, she probably never realized what reclaiming his Indigenous identity meant to Charles; she, too, thought of him as the product of successful assimilation.

It all falls apart

The personal and professional pressures on the Eastmans continued through the early years of the 20th century.

They reached a breaking point after their second daughter, Irene Taluta, died in the 1918 influenza pandemic. The tragic loss of a beloved child continued to unravel an already frayed marriage.

Elaine and Charles separated in 1921, though they never formally divorced.

I’ve been interested in the Eastmans and their unlikely marriage since I first learned of it years ago. As I pieced together parts of this complex relationship, I became convinced that while their compelling story reveals much about late 19th and early 20th century America, it’s also a story for today.

At a time of profoundly unsettling controversies around race, immigration and identity, the marriage of Elaine Goodale and Charles Eastman underscores why it can be so challenging for people from different backgrounds to truly understand each other.

But their story – how their mutual commitment to improve life for Native American people brought them together, how their quest to educate the nation about a marginalized people gave them purpose, and the ways in which they melded the personal and the political – also suggests the importance of trying.

Julie Dobrow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. A white poet and a Sioux doctor fell in love after Wounded Knee – racism and sexism would drive them apart – https://theconversation.com/a-white-poet-and-a-sioux-doctor-fell-in-love-after-wounded-knee-racism-and-sexism-would-drive-them-apart-263175

Source: The Conversation – USA (2) – By Joseph Morales, University Diversity Officer, Associate Professor of Ethnic Studies, California State University, Chico

The Trump administration is trying to eliminate diversity, equity and inclusion programs as part of a broader campaign to end what it calls “wokeness” in American education.

As part of this rollback, the Justice Department announced in July 2025 that it would no longer “defend” the federal definition of Hispanic-Serving Institutions, or HSIs. These are colleges where at least 25% of undergraduates identify as Hispanic or Latino.

This is more than a legal technicality. It reflects the Justice Department’s position that HSI grants violate constitutional protections, putting millions of federal dollars for these schools at risk.

Citing this legal rationale, the Department of Education confirmed in September that it had frozen US$350 million in education grants intended for Minority-Serving Institutions. This includes more than $250 million for HSIs, specifically.

The Education Department argues that these programs amount to racial discrimination because they tie federal grants to students’ racial or ethnic backgrounds.

This echoes the Supreme Court’s decision in 2023, which narrowed how colleges can consider race and ethnicity in admissions.

I serve as the university diversity officer at California State University, Chico, an HSI. I am also an ethnic studies scholar who focuses on equity in higher education.

Advocates for HSIs say ending federal funding would hurt already underfunded colleges, particularly those that serve large numbers of first-generation and low-income students.

What are Hispanic-Serving Institutions?

Congress created the HSI designation in 1992, through an amendment to the 1965 Higher Education Act. This amendment authorizes federal grants to help strengthen colleges that enroll large numbers of Hispanic and low-income students, providing more opportunity for those students to succeed and graduate.

There are more than 600 federally designated HSIs across the U.S. and Puerto Rico. California is home to the most HSIs, with 167, followed by Texas, Puerto Rico, New York and Illinois.

In addition to showing that at least 25% of its student population is Hispanic or Latino, any college or university that wants to qualify as an HSI must also show that at least half of its students come from low-income backgrounds.

Becoming an HSI allows colleges and universities to apply for federal funding intended to support underrepresented and low-income students.

HSIs vary in size and mission

HSIs enroll over 1.5 million Hispanic students, which amounts to over 60% of all Hispanic undergraduates in the U.S.

This marks a big increase from the 340,000 Hispanic undergraduates who attended an HSI in 1995.

Some of these schools are large public research universities, such as University of California, Riverside; University of California, Santa Barbara; and University of California, Santa Cruz. Others are regional institutions, private colleges and local community colleges.

Over the past decade, another kind of Hispanic-Serving Institution has emerged – research-intensive HSIs. These are colleges and universities where at least 25% of the student body is Hispanic and where there is significant research funding and a range of doctoral programs offered. These schools include University of California, Irvine; Florida International University; and the University of Texas at El Paso, among others.

Some researchers have debated whether the HSI category has become too broad, grouping schools with vastly different resources, missions and student populations.

Despite their differences, many HSIs enroll large numbers of first-generation, low-income and working students, as well as immigrants and transfer students.

HSIs also generally operate with fewer financial and academic resources than comparable non-HSI institutions.

How HSI funding works

Title V grants from the Department of Education are one clear way that HSIs can receive federal funding .

These competitive grants are intended to help HSIs expand educational opportunities and institutional capacity to support Hispanic and low-income students.

Rather than providing aid directly to students, Title V grants are used to offer faculty training, update classrooms and laboratories, create new degree programs and develop mentorship opportunities for first-generation students.

At campuses such as California State University, Chico and University of California, Irvine, Title V grants have given schools the money to create bilingual advising services and maintain data systems.

Title V grants form only one part of the broader funding picture for HSIs. Like many colleges, HSIs rely on state funding and tuition revenue. They also compete for other federal grants, including those from the National Science Foundation and the Department of Agriculture.

How HSIs help Hispanic students

A growing body of research shows that HSIs are crucial in helping more Hispanic and first-generation students attend and graduate college.

Some HSIs have received national recognition for using evidence-based practices to help Hispanic students perform better in the classroom. Hispanic students at these schools, which include Arizona State University and California State University, Fullerton, graduate at rates roughly 8 percentage points higher than Hispanic students nationally.

Hispanic students at HSIs graduate at rates more than 5 percentage points higher than those at comparable non-HSI colleges, according to similar 2017 findings from the nonprofit Education Trust.

There are a few reasons why there is a relatively high graduation rate for Hispanic students at HSIs.

Students at HSIs often report feeling a strong sense of belonging and see their own cultures reflected in the curriculum. Many HSI campuses also offer dedicated programs for first-generation students and train faculty to teach and advise with equity and inclusion in mind.

At University of California, Irvine, where I helped lead HSI initiatives, Hispanic undergraduate enrollment grew by nearly 150% between 2009 and 2019, from 3,000 students to more than 7,500.

During that time, more than 350 faculty and staff completed equity-focused training to strengthen advising and teaching practices that support Hispanic and other underrepresented students.

What’s at stake for HSIs

Hispanic Americans now make up nearly 20% of the U.S. population, and their college enrollment numbers are projected to grow from about 3.7 million in 2020 to 4.5 million by 2030, as overall college enrollment numbers are projected to decline during this time.

A national evaluation of Title V projects found that most colleges and universities used these grants to improve student services, develop new academic programs and build community partnerships that help first-generation and low-income students stay enrolled and complete their degrees.

As HSI researchers note, graduation rates tell only part of the story. True student success at HSIs depends not just on graduation numbers, but on culturally responsive teaching, inclusive campus climates and equity-minded institutional practices.

How policymakers define and fund HSIs will shape not only the future of these institutions but also whether this growing generation of Hispanic students can access, afford and complete college in the years ahead.

Joseph Morales, Ph.D., works at California State University, Chico, a federally designated Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI). While not a principal investigator on any federal HSI grants, he has participated in professional development programs and national conferences hosted by organizations mentioned in the article, including the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities (HACU). These experiences inform his understanding of the field but did not influence the content of this piece. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of California State University, Chico.

– ref. Trump is cutting funding to universities with large Hispanic student populations – here’s what to know – https://theconversation.com/trump-is-cutting-funding-to-universities-with-large-hispanic-student-populations-heres-what-to-know-251202

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Claire Wilcox, Adjunct Faculty in Psychiatry, University of New Mexico

People often joke that their favorite snack is “like crack” or call themselves “chocoholics” in jest.

But can someone really be addicted to food in the same way they could be hooked on substances such as alcohol or nicotine?

As an addiction psychiatrist and researcher with experience in treating eating disorders and obesity, I have been following the research in this field for the past few decades. I have written a textbook on food addiction, obesity and overeating disorders, and, more recently, a self-help book for people who have intense cravings and obsessions for some foods.

While there is still some debate among psychologists and scientists, a consensus is emerging that food addiction is a real phenomenon. Hundreds of studies have confirmed that certain foods – often those that are high in sugar and ultraprocessed – affect the brains and behavior of certain people similarly to other addictive substances such as nicotine.

Still, many questions remain about which foods are addictive, which people are most susceptible to this addiction and why. There are also questions as to how this condition compares to other substance addictions and whether the same treatments could work for patients struggling with any kind of addiction.

How does addiction work?

The neurobiological mechanisms of addiction have been mapped out through decades of laboratory-based research using neuroimaging and cognitive neuroscience approaches.

Studies show that preexisting genetic and environmental factors set the stage for developing an addiction. Regularly consuming an addictive substance then causes a rewiring of several important brain systems, leading the person to crave more and more of it.

This rewiring takes place in three key brain networks that correspond to key functional domains, often referred to as the reward system, the stress response system and the system in charge of executive control.

First, using an addictive substance causes the release of a chemical messenger called dopamine in the reward network, which makes the user feel good. Dopamine release also facilitates a neurobiological process called conditioning, which is basically a neural learning process that gives rise to habit formation.

As a result of the conditioning process, sensory cues associated with the substance start to have increasing influence over decision-making and behavior, often leading to a craving. For instance, because of conditioning, the sight of a needle can drive a person to set aside their commitment to quit using an injectable drug and return to it.

Second, continued use of an addictive substance over time affects the brain’s emotional or stress response network. The user’s body and mind build up a tolerance, meaning they need increasing amounts of the substance to feel its effect. The neurochemicals involved in this process are different than those mediating habit formation and include a chemical messenger called noradrenaline and internally produced opioids such as endorphins. If they quit using the substance, they experience symptoms of withdrawal, which can range from irritability and nausea to paranoia and seizures.

At that point, negative reinforcement kicks in. This is the process by which a person keeps going back to a substance because they’ve learned that using the substance doesn’t just feel good, but it also relieves negative emotions. During withdrawal from a substance, people feel profound emotional discomfort, including sadness and irritability. Negative reinforcement is why someone who is trying to quit smoking, for instance, will be at highest risk of relapse in the week just after stopping and during times of stress, because in the past they’d normally turn to cigarettes for relief.

Third, overuse of most addictive substances progressively damages the brain’s executive control network, the prefrontal cortex, and other key parts of the brain involved in impulse control and self-regulation. Over time, the damage to these areas makes it more and more difficult for the user to control their behavior around these substances. This is why it is so hard for long-term users of many addictive substances to quit.

What evidence is there that food is addictive?

Many studies over the past 25 years have shown that high-sugar and other highly pleasurable foods – often foods that are ultraprocessed – act on these brain networks in ways that are similar to other addictive substances. The resulting changes in the brain fuel further craving for and overuse of the substance – in this case, highly rewarding food.

Clinical studies have demonstrated that people with an addictive relationship to food demonstrate the hallmark signs of a substance use disorder.

Studies also indicate that for some people, cravings for highly palatable foods go well beyond just a normal hankering for a snack and are, in fact, signs of addictive behavior. One study found that cues associated with highly pleasurable foods activate the reward centers in the brain, and the degree of activation predicts weight gain. In other words, the more power the food cue has to capture a person’s attention, the more likely they are to succumb to cravings for it.

Multiple studies have also found that suddenly ending a diet that’s high in sugar can cause withdrawal, similar to when people quit opioids or nicotine.

Excessive exposure to high-sugar foods has also been found to reduce cognitive function and cause damage to the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, the parts of the brain that mediate executive control and memory.

In another study, when obese people were exposed to food and told to resist their craving for it by ignoring it or thinking about something else, their prefrontal cortexes were more active compared with nonobese individuals. This indicates that it was more difficult for the obese group to fight their cravings.

Finding safe treatments for patients struggling with food

Addiction recovery is often centered on the idea that the fastest way to get well is to abstain from the problem substance. But unlike nicotine or narcotics, food is something that all people need to survive, so quitting cold turkey isn’t an option.

In addition, eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder often occur alongside addictive eating. Most psychologists and psychiatrists believe these illnesses have their root cause in excessive dietary restriction.

For this reason, many eating disorder treatment professionals balk at the idea of labeling some foods as addictive. They are concerned that encouraging abstinence from particular foods could trigger binge eating and extreme dieting to compensate.

A way forward

But others argue that, with care, integrating food addiction approaches into eating disorders treatment is feasible and could be lifesaving for some.

The emerging consensus around this link is moving researchers and those who treat eating disorders to consider food addiction in their treatment models.

One such approach might look like the one described to me by addiction psychiatrist and eating disorders specialist Dr. Kim Dennis. In line with traditional eating disorder treatment, nutritionists at her residential clinic strongly discourage their patients from restricting calories. At the same time, in line with traditional addiction treatment, they help their patients to consider significantly reducing or completely abstaining from particular foods to which they have developed an addictive relationship.

Additional clinical studies are already being carried out. But going forward, more studies are needed to help clinicians find the most effective treatments for people with an addictive relationship with food.

Efforts are underway by groups of psychologists, psychiatrists, neuroscientists and mental health providers to get “ultraprocessed food use disorder,” also known as food addiction, into future editions of diagnostic manuals such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases.

Beyond acknowledging what those treating food addiction are already seeing in the field, this would help researchers get funding for additional studies of treating food addiction. With more information about what treatments will work best for whom, those who have these problems will no longer have to suffer in silence, and providers will be better equipped to help them.

I have two books for sale which address food addiction, and I could benefit financially from increased interest in the food addiction topic:

Wilcox C.E. Food Addiction Obesity and Disorders of Overeating: An Evidenced Based Assessment and Clinical Guide. (2021) Springer

Wilcox C. Rewire Your Food-Addicted Brain: Fight Cravings and Break Free from a High-Sugar Ultra-Processed Diet. (2025) New Harbinger Publications

– ref. Can you really be addicted to food? Researchers are uncovering convincing similarities to drug addiction – https://theconversation.com/can-you-really-be-addicted-to-food-researchers-are-uncovering-convincing-similarities-to-drug-addiction-261727

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Libby Richards, Professor of Nursing, Purdue University

As the autumn’s cool weather settles in, so does flu season – bringing with it the familiar experiences of sniffles, fever and cough.

Every year, influenza – the flu – affects millions of people. Most will experience the infection as a mild to moderate illness – but for some, it can be severe, potentially resulting in hospitalization and even death.

While the start of flu season may feel routine, it’s important to remember that the virus changes every year, making annual vaccination an important part of staying healthy.

What to expect this flu season

Public health experts are closely watching how this year’s flu season unfolds. Early reports suggest that the U.S. may see a moderate level of flu cases, partly because last year’s flu activity was high and it’s uncommon to have two severe flu seasons in a row.

However, the U.S. also uses data from the Southern Hemisphere’s earlier flu season, which lasts from April to October, to help predict what the season might look like. There, the flu season has been more severe than in years past.

Taken together, that means there could be a significant number of flu cases in the U.S., particularly among children, older adults and those with chronic health conditions.

Each year, the flu vaccine is updated to best match the strains of influenza expected to circulate. Because flu viruses mutate frequently, the effectiveness of the flu vaccine can vary each year. However, even when the match between the seasonal flu and the vaccine that is designed around it isn’t perfect, vaccination remains the best protection against severe illness.

In the U.S., all flu vaccines for the 2025-2026 season will be trivalent – which means they are formulated to protect against the three main groups of influenza virus strains. These are an A (H1N1) virus, an A (H3N2) virus and a B/Victoria virus.

Vaccine availability

Recent vaccine policy changes have created some confusion, particularly around COVID-19 vaccines. Many people are wondering if getting the flu vaccine has become more complicated. The good news is that flu vaccines remain widely available and accessible. Pharmacies, doctors’ offices, public health clinics and many workplaces are offering the seasonal shot, often at little or no cost.

The 2025-2026 flu vaccine is available now. Manufacturers start shipping vaccines doses in July and August to ensure access by September. While public health experts won’t know the exact effectiveness of the flu vaccine until flu season is over, the flu shot usually cuts your chances of needing to see a doctor for the flu by about half.

Vaccination helps reduce the severity of illness, the likelihood of hospitalization and the spread of infection within our communities.

It’s important to note that you can get the flu shot at the same time as other vaccines, such as the COVID-19 vaccine or the RSV and pneumonia vaccines for older adults, without compromising effectiveness. If you’re unsure which vaccines are right for you, your health care provider or pharmacist can help you decide based on your age and health status.

Who should get the flu shot

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that everyone 6 months and older receive the flu vaccine each year, with rare exceptions. That aligns with guidelines from other organizations, such as the American Association of Pediatrics.

The flu vaccine is especially important for:

• Adults 65 and older

• Children under 5 – and particularly those under 2

• Pregnant people

• People with chronic conditions such as asthma, diabetes or heart disease

• Health care workers and caregivers

Even if you’re healthy and rarely get sick, getting vaccinated protects not only you but also those around you who may be more vulnerable.

Practical prevention tips

In addition to vaccination, everyday actions help reduce the spread of flu and other respiratory viruses:

• Wash your hands frequently with soap and water.

• Cover your coughs and sneezes.

• Stay home if you’re feeling unwell.

• Consider wearing a mask in crowded indoor spaces during peak flu activity, particularly if you have a cough.

Even though flu season is part of life, serious illness doesn’t have to be. By staying informed, getting vaccinated and practicing healthy habits, everyone can play a role in keeping their communities safe and healthy.

If you haven’t gotten your flu shot yet, now’s the time to protect yourself, and those you care for, this flu season.

Libby Richards has received funding from the American Nurses Foundation, National Institutes of Health, and the Indiana Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute .

– ref. Flu season has arrived – and so have updated flu vaccines – https://theconversation.com/flu-season-has-arrived-and-so-have-updated-flu-vaccines-267058

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Prakash Nagarkatti, Professor of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina

A special group of immune cells known as regulatory T cells, or Tregs for short, became an overnight sensation when a trio of U.S. and Japanese scientists won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine on Oct. 6, 2025, for their discovery and elucidation of these cells.

Treg cells act as the “master regulators” of the immune system – much like conductors leading an orchestra – ensuring that all other immune cells work in harmony. People with too few or defective Treg cells often develop autoimmune diseases, where unchecked immune cells mistakenly attack the body’s own tissues or organs. Yet when Treg cells become too numerous, people can become more susceptible to cancer and infections.

For this reason, Treg cells are often described as a double-edged sword. Treg cells also control internal revolt in the form of an overactive immune response by other immune cells that can trigger allergies and autoimmune diseases such as arthritis, lupus and multiple sclerosis – diseases that develop when Treg cells are defective in either number, function or both.

The well-established functions of Treg cells in autoimmune diseases, cancer and infections have recently been complemented by research unraveling how environmental factors influence these cells and modulate the immune response.

We are a husband-wife team of immunologists who study how environmental factors such as chemicals, diet and gut bacteria affect Treg cells and the overall functioning of the immune system.

While our study dating back to 1984 found that certain environmental contaminants induce T cells that suppress the immune system, further study on such cells was hampered by an inability in the field at large to isolate and characterize these cells. The discoveries honored by this year’s Nobel Prize transformed how researchers understand the immune system.

The interplay of environmental factors

The environment plays a profound role in regulating the development, maintenance and functions of Treg cells. Some examples of environmental factors include chemical pollutants found in the air and water, microbes, sunlight, diet and medications.

Rather than being a single, static population, Treg cells are highly adaptable. They integrate a variety of environmental cues to either suppress or manage immune responses. They accomplish this by producing key molecules such as FoxP3 that send a signal to other immune cells to stop mounting an aggressive immune response.

Certain toxic chemicals can increase the number or activity of Treg cells. One of the best-known examples is a group of long-lasting pollutants called dioxins that accumulate in fatty tissues through consumption of contaminated meat, dairy and fish. They are produced from burning waste as well as chemical manufacturing and forest fires.

The most toxic dioxin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, or TCDD, is a known human carcinogen. Researchers have linked exposure to this chemical to various health problems, including cancer and reproductive and developmental issues. Research shows that dioxins activate Treg cells through a sensor known as the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. This constitutes one of the mechanisms through which certain environmental chemicals promote cancer by enhancing Treg activity and suppressing the anti-cancer immune response.

Air pollution, such as diesel exhaust, can have the opposite effect, impairing Treg cell function and contributing to inflammatory diseases such as asthma. This may occur through damage to the FoxP3 gene.

How diet interacts with Treg cells

Diet also plays a powerful role in regulating Treg cells. Compounds known as indoles, found in vegetables from the cabbage family such as broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower, can activate Treg cells and help prevent gut inflammation. These compounds also work by stimulating the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which boosts Treg numbers and activity.

Another way diet can influence Treg cells is through the regulation of the microbes that live in the gut.

The gut has trillions of microbial residents, both benefical and harmful. Previous research found that Treg cells in the gut play a crucial role in maintaining gut homeostasis – the dynamic balance between microbiota and immune cells found in the gut. Any disturbance leading to loss of Treg cell function can lead to hyperactivation of other immune cells in the gut. This can trigger inflammation in which the immune cells destroy the lining of the intestine, leading to conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease.

Other naturally occurring substances – such as naringenin, a chemical abundant in citrus fruits, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate, a compound found in green tea – also activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and promote Treg development.

A fiber-rich diet supports the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. This bacteria ferments fiber into short-chain fatty acids that enhance Treg cell function and help maintain gut health. Probiotic bacteria also increases Treg cell populations, thereby reducing inflammation.

In addition, dietary tryptophan – an amino acid found in foods such as poultry, eggs, tofu and seeds – is metabolized into compounds that activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, further boosting Treg cell activity and protecting against gut inflammation.

By contrast, a Western diet high in fat, sugar and processed foods disrupts the balance of gut bacteria. This, in turn, reduces the population of microbes that support Treg cells and promotes a more inflammatory environment in the gut.

Keeping Treg cells in harmony

Scientists like us and many others are working to understand the processes involved in maintaining the delicate balance of Treg cells that are influenced by all of these outside factors. The goal is to learn how Treg cells and other immune cells can be kept in equilibrium – strong enough to defend against infections and cancer yet restrained enough to prevent autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

The profound environmental influence on Treg cell development and function makes understanding these interactions crucial for defining the fine line between health and disease.

Prakash Nagarkatti receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.

Mitzi Nagarkatti receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.

– ref. How pollution and the microbiome interact with Tregs, the immune system regulators whose discovery was honored with the Nobel Prize – https://theconversation.com/how-pollution-and-the-microbiome-interact-with-tregs-the-immune-system-regulators-whose-discovery-was-honored-with-the-nobel-prize-266865

Source: The Conversation – USA (3) – By Brittany Romanello, Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of Arkansas

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has spent the past few weeks in a moment of both mourning and transition. On Sept. 28, 2025, a shooting and arson at a Latter-day Saints meetinghouse in Michigan killed four people and wounded eight more. What’s more, Russell M. Nelson, president of the church, died the day before at age 101. Based on protocol, his role will most likely be filled by Dallin H. Oaks, the longest-serving of the church’s top leaders.

The next president will inherit leadership of a religious institution that is both deeply American and increasingly global – diversity at odds with the way it’s typically represented in mainstream media, from “The Secret Life of Mormon Wives” to “The Book of Mormon” Broadway musical.

As a cultural anthropologist and ethnographer, I research Latter-day Saints communities across the United States, particularly Latina immigrants and young adults. When presenting my research, I’ve noticed that many people still closely associate the church with Utah, where its headquarters are located.

The church has played a pivotal role in Utah’s history and culture. Today, though, only 42% of its residents are members. The stereotype of Latter-day Saints as mostly white, conservative Americans is just one of many long-standing misconceptions about LDS communities and beliefs.

Many people are surprised to learn there are vibrant congregations far from the American West’s “Mormon Corridor.” There are devout Latter-day Saints everywhere from Ghana and the United Arab Emirates to Russia and mainland China.

Global growth

Joseph Smith founded The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in upstate New York in 1830 and immediately sent missionaries to preach along the frontier. The first overseas missionaries traveled to England in 1837.

Shortly after World War II, church leaders overhauled their missionary approach to increase the number of international missions. This strategy led to growth across the globe, especially in Central America, South America and the Pacific Islands.

Today, the church has over 17.5 million members, according to church records. A majority live outside the U.S., spread across more than 160 countries.

One way the church and researchers track this global growth is by construction of new temples.These buildings, used not for weekly worship but special ceremonies like weddings, were once almost exclusively located in the United States. Today, they exist in dozens of countries, from Argentina to Tonga.

During Nelson’s presidency, which began in 2018, he announced 200 new temples, more than any of his predecessors. Temples are a physical and symbolic representation of the church’s commitment to being a global religion, although cultural tensions remain.

Among U.S. members, demographics are also shifting. Seventy-two percent of American members are white, down from 85% in 2007, according to the Pew Research Center. Growing numbers of Latinos – 12% of U.S. members – have played a significant role sustaining congregations across the country.

There are congregations in every U.S. state, including the small community of Grand Blanc, Michigan, site of the tragic shooting. Suspect Thomas Jacob Sanford, who was fatally shot by police, had gone on a recent tirade against Latter-day Saints during a conversation with a local political candidate.

In the following days, an American member of the church raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for Sanford’s family.

Growing pains

Despite the church’s diversity, its institutional foundations remain firmly rooted in the United States. The top leadership bodies are still composed almost entirely of white men, and most are American-born.

As the church continues to grow, questions arise about how well the norms of a Utah-based church fit the realities of members in Manila or Mexico City, Bangalore or Berlin. How much room is there, even in U.S. congregations, for local cultural expressions of faith?

Latino Latter-day Saints and members in Latin America, for example, have faced pushback against cultural traditions that were seen as distinctly “not LDS,” such as making altars and giving offerings during Dia de los Muertos. In 2021, the church launched a Spanish-language campaign using Day of the Dead imagery to increase interest among Latinos. Many members were happy to see this representation. Still, some women I spoke with said that an emphasis on whiteness and American nationalism, as well as anti-immigrant rhetoric they’d heard from other members, deterred them from fully celebrating their cultures.

Even aesthetic details, like musical styles, often reflect a distinctly American model. The standardized hymnal, for example, contains patriotic songs like “America the Beautiful.” This emphasis on American culture can feel especially out of sync in places in countries with high membership rates that have histories of U.S. military or political interventions.

Expectations about clothing and physical appearance, too, have prompted questions about representation, belonging and authority. It was only in 2024, for instance, that the church offered members in humid areas sleeveless versions of the sacred garments Latter-day Saints wear under clothing as a reminder of their faith.

Historically, the church viewed tattoos as taboo – a violation of the sanctity of the body. Many parts of the world have thousands of years of sacred tattooing traditions – including Oceania, which has high rates of church membership.

Change ahead?

Among many challenges, the next president of the church will navigate how to lead a global church from its American headquarters – a church that continues to be misunderstood and stereotyped, sometimes to the point of violence.

The number of Latter-day Saints continues to grow in many parts of the world, but this growth brings a greater need for cultural sensitivity. The church, historically very uniform in its efforts to standardize Latter-day Saints history, art and teachings, is finding that harder to maintain when congregations span dozens of countries, languages, customs and histories.

Organizing the church like a corporation, with a top-down decision-making process, can also make it difficult to address painful racial histories and the needs of marginalized groups, like LGBTQ+ members.

The transition in leadership offers an opportunity not only for the church but for the broader public to better understand the multifaceted, global nature of Latter-day Saints’ lives today.

Brittany Romanello does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. The new president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints will inherit a global faith far more diverse than many realize – https://theconversation.com/the-new-president-of-the-church-of-jesus-christ-of-latter-day-saints-will-inherit-a-global-faith-far-more-diverse-than-many-realize-266337

Source: The Conversation – USA – By Gregory P. Magarian, Thomas and Karole Green Professor of Law, Washington University in St. Louis

The assassination in September 2025 of conservative activist Charlie Kirk has heightened attention on the relationship between political rhetoric and political violence.

Even before police had identified a suspect, President Donald Trump blamed the shooting on the “rhetoric” of the “radical left.” The Trump administration has since acted to silence left-leaning speakers and is threatening to intensify its attacks on left-wing political speech.

But my decades of studying free speech law have convinced me that suppressing political rhetoric, even through social norms rather than law, undermines the discussion, debate and constructive disagreement essential for a healthy democracy.

Gun proliferation complicates the problem by making political violence much easier to carry out.

Rise of political violence

Political violence – by which I mean any physical attack on people that aims to achieve a political goal – harms democracy by shifting the field of political disagreement from debate to aggression.

Under the U.S. constitutional system of limited government and individual rights, political violence by the government – for example, government assaults on anti-government protesters – is among the gravest threats to liberty.

But political violence committed by private individuals or groups also corrodes constitutional democracy. In the United States, acts of private political violence against members of government and against ordinary people have both increased dramatically in recent years.

Political assassinations are the most vivid form of political violence. The Kirk assassination is only the latest example.

In June 2025, a shooter with a “hit list” of left-liberal targets assassinated Minnesota Democratic Rep. Melissa Hortman and her husband. In December 2024, a shooter angry about health insurance costs killed United Healthcare CEO Brian Thompson. In July 2024, a shooter wounded Trump at a campaign rally in a failed assassination attempt.

Political violence also includes bias-motivated murders. In 2022, a white supremacist murdered 10 Black patrons at a grocery store in Buffalo, N.Y. In 2019, an anti-immigrant racist murdered 23 mostly Latino shoppers at a Wal-Mart in El Paso, Texas. In 2018, an antisemite murdered 11 congregants at a Pittsburgh synagogue.

In those incidents and numerous others, extreme political ideas appear to have motivated the attackers. The linkage of extremist speech to lethal violence has prompted calls to legally restrict or punish extremist speech.

Political violence, free speech and cultural editing

The First Amendment, however, protects extremist speech, including advocacy of violence. Violent rhetoric must actually incite or threaten violence to lose the First Amendment’s shelter.

If law cannot curb the sorts of speech that may inspire political violence, what about social norms – widely shared beliefs about what speech is socially acceptable or appropriate?

Much speech that the First Amendment protects from government regulation eventually disappears from public discourse. That happens through a process I call “cultural editing”: popular and institutional rejection of outmoded or repellent ideas. For example, no serious medical conference discusses treating hay fever with cocaine, and no respectable political science panel includes Nazis.

The Trump administration’s blaming of the Kirk assassination on “radical left” rhetoric points toward a deeper level of cultural editing.

Trump and other conservatives have not cited speech that advocated violence against Kirk. Instead, some conservative activists, spurred on by Trump administration officials, called for harassing and punishing critics of Kirk’s statements and actions.

But such criticisms of Kirk, whatever their merits or lack thereof, fall within the scope of ordinary political debate.

Kirk was not a government official, but he had strong influence in the Trump administration. Robust democratic discourse requires space for people to criticize such powerful figures. Large-scale cultural editing of those criticisms, amounting to suppression of left-leaning views, would hurt the public’s ability to discuss and resolve political disagreements.

However, Trump and others who push for suppressing harsh political rhetoric might argue that the stakes of verbal attacks have increased. They might say that U.S. political culture can no longer indulge political invective because political violence has become more common.

Political violence and guns

That argument for suppressing harsh political speech ignores an independent cause of political violence: gun proliferation.

Most political violence in the U.S. involves guns. Guns make political violence easier by erasing the distance between extremist ideas and lethal action. Hate or fanaticism can end a life in an instant, hundreds of yards from the victim.

The U.S. has by far the highest number of civilian guns and rate of civilian gun ownership in the world. Since 2008, when the Supreme Court declared an individual Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms, annual U.S. gun purchases have increased from about 9 million to about 16 million.

Governments often find regulating speech easier, even though less effective, than tackling underlying problems. At times, federal and state governments have addressed political violence by regulating guns. The 1994 federal assault weapons ban exemplifies regulatory efforts to curb overall gun violence.

But the Supreme Court’s Second Amendment cases now appear to bar strong gun regulations.

People in a democratic society need freedom to make harsh, even extreme political statements with a minimum of cultural editing. The Second Amendment protects access to lethal weapons. This combination of free speech and gun rights makes the growing problem of political violence much harder to solve.

Gregory P. Magarian does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Political violence: What can happen when First Amendment free speech meets Second Amendment gun rights – https://theconversation.com/political-violence-what-can-happen-when-first-amendment-free-speech-meets-second-amendment-gun-rights-265223