Category: The Conversation – UK

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Umair Choksy, Senior Lecturer in Management, University of Stirling

The US has imposed a 50% tariff on most Indian exports, following through on its threat to raise them from 25%. Although they are formally applied to goods, there are fears that tariffs could also unleash a domino effect on IT services. As strange as it may sound, the tariff wars sparked by the US’s “liberation day” levies could now filter through to things like apps and online shopping.

India is home to software service providers – companies that deliver and maintain apps for clients all over the world. Already, there have been reports that major Indian providers such as TCS and Wipro are seeing project delays as US clients adopt a “wait-and-watch” stance.

The Trump administration’s recent announcement that it will impose a US$100,000 (£74,072) fee for new H-1B skilled worker visas, which is popular with Indian IT professionals, has added further uncertainty.

While US tariffs don’t hit software services directly, they can create what are known as “second-order effects”. In other words, as companies in industries affected by tariffs (like retail and manufacturing) start to feel the extra costs, they slash discretionary IT spending.

This leaves less in their budgets for outsourcing contracts. My research on other types of shock in countries that provide IT services has shown similar pressures arising.

This all matters because consumers – the end-users of banking apps, hospital portals, online shopping platforms and delivery systems – rely on Indian software providers far more than they may realise. Nearly 60% of the world’s leading companies outsource their IT projects to India, and the country maintains much of the digital infrastructure behind all these systems.

An Indian team might be running the back-end of a US hospital’s patient management system, for example. When tariffs raise hardware costs in the US, the hospital may delay adding new features like online appointment booking.

The cost of tariffs in the US will inevitably squeeze budgets, potentially making organisations pause, downsize or cancel IT projects. For consumers, including those outside the US, this can translate into slower upgrades, glitches and longer waits for appointments that are managed on online platforms.

If tariffs squeeze client budgets and delay IT contracts, shoppers in Europe or Asia could face glitches, slower updates or disrupted payments. A global outage in 2024 caused by a faulty update from US cybersecurity firm CrowdStrike grounded flights and disrupted retailers worldwide. It shows how quickly US digital shocks can cascade to consumers everywhere.

And a study found that some US and UK client firms ended IT projects when political unrest in Pakistan made delivery less predictable. One US client, for example, froze software development, leaving the outsourced team half-way through a system upgrade. This meant end-users never saw the new feature arrive and Pakistani software firms lost their largest US-based client.

Other research has found that a spike in terror attacks in Pakistan from 2008 to 2009 led to a delay in critical information reaching IT teams there who were working on software. This caused bugs to linger and left end-users stuck with faulty or outdated apps.

Keeping services running

When they’re squeezed, outsourcing firms protect the software end-users by reshaping how projects are managed rather than relying on price-cutting or goodwill. My recent study, undertaken with colleagues, found that resilient firms adapt on the fly, shifting work to backup offices or networks when disruptions hit, so people can still access systems, even during blackouts.

If US tariffs squeeze client budgets and similarly disrupt the pipeline of projects, outsourcing firms may respond in the same way. That could mean reallocating tasks, altering delivery timescales or opening offices locally – to shield end-users from service interruptions.

Other research shows that suppliers change processes mid-project when rules or client needs suddenly shift. To handle complex tasks like an orthodontist’s 3D app, for example, a firm might decide to split the work. This could mean sending small teams abroad or opening offices near US or UK clients for sensitive tasks, while keeping most coding offshore.

We, as end-users of software apps, are not just passive recipients. Our research on software firms showed that when everyday users demanded apps that looked good and worked without glitches, companies passed that pressure straight to their outsourcing partners in countries like India and Pakistan. In effect, consumer expectations filtered upwards.

In the end, tariffs are not just abstract trade measures. They work their way through client budgets and outsourcing contracts, potentially shaping how quickly apps are updated or how smoothly systems run. For end-users, that can translate into delays to new features, glitches or systems that freeze just when you need them most.

Umair Choksy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why Trump’s tariffs could make the apps on your phone worse – https://theconversation.com/why-trumps-tariffs-could-make-the-apps-on-your-phone-worse-264173

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Diva Sinha, PhD Candidate, Department of Development Studies, SOAS, University of London

Uttarakhand, referred to as the land of gods, is also known as the energy state of India. It is home to several fast-flowing rivers at high altitudes that serve as the perfect backdrop for harnessing energy from water to produce hydroelectric power.

In this state, the Tehri dam, situated in Garhwal, is the highest dam in India. The amalgamation of rivers and high mountains in this area is ideally suited to producing electricity for rural and urban areas through hydropower and other renewable energy sources such as solar and wind.

In the neighbouring state of Ladakh, the Zoji La is one of the highest mountain passes in the world. It’s surrounded by the rugged terrain of Trans-Himalayas, with cold desert slopes, snow-capped peaks and alpine meadows. This biodiverse region is home to snow leopards, Himalayan brown bears, wolves, Pallas cats, yaks and lynx.

Zoji La also serves as a gateway for the movement of Indian military troops, enabling a constant armed force presence at the Indo-Chinese border. The construction of the Zoji La tunnel, poised to become the longest tunnel in Asia, allows India to rapidly deploy troops near the border with China while claiming to promote economic development in rural areas. Existing roads remain blocked by snow for up to six months each year, so without the new tunnel, access is limited.

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Read more:
India-Pakistan conflict over water reflects a region increasingly vulnerable to climate change

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Its construction, however, uses extensive blasting and carving of the mountain slopes using dynamite, which disrupts fragile geological structures of the already unstable terrain, generating severe noise and air pollution, thereby putting wildlife at risk.

Hydropower harnesses the power of flowing water as it moves from higher to lower elevations. Through a series of turbines and generators, hydroelectric power plants convert the movement of water from rivers and waterfalls into electrical energy. This so-called “kinetic energy” contributes 14.3% of the global renewable energy mix.

However, development of hydropower projects and rapid urbanisation in the Indian Himalayas are actively degrading the environmental and ecological landscape, particularly in the ecologically sensitive, seismically active and fragile regions of Joshimath in Uttarakhand and Zoji La in Ladakh.

The construction of hydropower plants, along with associated railways, all-weather highways and tunnels across the Himalayan mountains, is being undertaken without adequate urban planning, design or implementation.

At an altitude of 1,800m in the Garhwal region, land is subsiding or sinking in the town of Joshimath where more than 850 homes have been deemed as inhabitable due to cracks. Subsidence occurs naturally as a result of flash flooding, for example, but is also being accelerated by human activities, such as the construction of hydropower projects in this fragile, soft-slope area.

Satellite data shows that Joshimath sank by 5.4cm within 12 days between December 27 2022 and January 8 2023. Between April and November 2022, the town experienced a rapid subsidence of 9cm.

One 2024 study analysed land deformation in Joshimath using remote sensing data. The study found significant ground deformation during the year 2022–23, with the maximum subsidence in the north-western part of the town coinciding with the near completion of the Tapovan Vishnugad hydropower project in 2023. Another 2025 study highlights that hydropower projects, particularly the Tapovan Vishnugad plant near Joshimath, play a significant role in destabilising the region.

Dynamite and disaster risk

As part of my PhD research, I’ve been interviewing locals about how this is affecting them. “The subsidence in Joshimath is not solely the result of natural calamities,” said apple farmer Rivya Dimri, who once lived in the town but relocated to Lansdowne due to the inhospitable conditions of her ancestral home. She believes that a significant part of the problem stems from dam construction, frequent tunnelling and blasting, plus the widespread deforestation that has taken place to accommodate infrastructure development.

Farmer Tanzong Le from Leh told me that “the government is prioritising military agendas over the safety and security of local communities and the ecology of Ladakh”. He believes that “the use of dynamite for blasting through mountains not only destabilises the geological foundations of the Trans-Himalayan mountains but also endangers wildlife and the surrounding natural environment, exacerbating vulnerability in these already sensitive mountain regions”.

The twin challenges of haphazard and unplanned infrastructure development in Joshimath and Zoji La represent two sides of the same coin: poorly executed infrastructure projects that prioritise economic, energy, military and geopolitical ambitions over the safeguarding of nature and communities. Hydropower plants, tunnels and highways may bring economic benefits and geopolitical advantages, but without urgent safeguards, India risks undermining the very mountains that protect its people, wildlife, ecosystems and borders.

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Diva Sinha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. How India’s unplanned hydropower dams and tunnels are disrupting Himalayan landscapes – https://theconversation.com/how-indias-unplanned-hydropower-dams-and-tunnels-are-disrupting-himalayan-landscapes-261956

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Dipa Kamdar, Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy Practice, Kingston University

US president Donald Trump has claimed that paracetamol (acetaminophen or Tylenol) use in pregnancy is linked to autism in children, urging pregnant women to avoid the painkiller. This announcement has sparked alarm, confusion and a flurry of responses from health experts worldwide. Trump’s comments come in a long line of unsubstantiated claims about the causes of autism, with paracetamol now the latest target.

To understand these claims, we need to examine what autism actually is and why diagnoses have increased. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or autism is a complex neurodevelopmental condition affecting social interaction, communication and behaviour. It is not a disease but a lifelong difference in how people experience and interact with the world.

While diagnoses of autism have increased in recent decades, this is largely due to better awareness, broader diagnostic criteria and improved access to assessments. Many people, especially women and those with less typical presentations, were previously missed or misdiagnosed.

Trump’s recent statements have cited mounting evidence linking paracetamol in pregnancy to autism and suggested the Amish and Cuban communities have virtually no autism because they don’t use the drug. However, there are documented cases of autism in both the Amish community and Cuba.

Both communities also use paracetamol, but it’s not used as widely as in the US or UK, say, which might suggest a link between the drug’s use and autism (high use, high autism prevalence; low use, low autism prevalence). However, attributing low rates to paracetamol use ignores the complexities of diagnosis, reporting, healthcare access and cultural or religious stigma in different populations.

A more nuanced picture

The scientific evidence presents a more nuanced picture than the White House statements. A 2025 review, funded by the National Institutes of Health in the US, analysed 46 studies. Twenty-seven of these found a link between paracetamol use during pregnancy and increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in children. The review does strengthen the evidence for a potential connection, but importantly, it does not prove that paracetamol causes autism. Other factors – like why women took paracetamol in the first place (infection or fever) – could explain the results.

More reassuring is the largest and most rigorous study to date – a Swedish nationwide analysis of over 2.4 million children. It found no evidence of increased risk of autism in children whose mothers used paracetamol during pregnancy, once family and genetic factors were accounted for.

The study provides strong reassurance that paracetamol, when used as recommended, is an unlikely cause of autism. Another 2025 review similarly showed that taking paracetamol during pregnancy is unlikely to significantly increase the risk of autism in children.

Autism does not have a single, simple cause. It develops through a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. While genetics play an important role, no single gene or mutation explains autism on its own. Environmental factors – such as an infection during pregnancy, certain medications, microplastics, advanced parental age, or complications around birth – may also increase risk. However, in most cases, autism cannot be traced back to any one factor alone.

The clinical reality is that paracetamol remains the first-choice painkiller for pregnant women for good reason. Untreated pain and fever in pregnancy can themselves pose serious risks to both mother and baby – increasing the risk of birth defects like spina bifida, cleft lip or palate and heart problems.

Other common painkillers, such as ibuprofen and aspirin, are not recommended in pregnancy unless under medical supervision, as they carry risks to the baby including issues with blood circulation, lungs and kidney development.

The UK’s medicines regulator has reaffirmed that paracetamol is safe to use in pregnancy when taken as directed. There is no evidence that it definitively causes autism and pregnant women should not avoid necessary treatment for pain or fever. Experts agree there’s no need to change existing advice – paracetamol remains safe to use for pain or fever in pregnancy when taken as recommended.

For pregnant women experiencing pain, the NHS continues to recommend trying natural measures first – getting fresh air, drinking water and avoiding screens. But when these don’t work, paracetamol remains the safest pharmaceutical option when taken at the lowest dose for the shortest time necessary.

Ultimately, the paracetamol-autism debate illustrates a familiar pattern: complex science being reduced to political soundbites. Autism is a multifactorial condition shaped by genetics and environment, not a single pill taken in pregnancy.

The overwhelming weight of evidence still supports paracetamol as the safest option for pregnant women when used as recommended. The real danger isn’t the medicine – it’s oversimplified claims that create fear and undermine trust in healthcare.

Dipa Kamdar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Paracetamol, pregnancy and autism: what the science really shows – https://theconversation.com/paracetamol-pregnancy-and-autism-what-the-science-really-shows-265875

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Jo Adetunji, Executive Editor – Partnerships, The Conversation

You have three minutes to present your big research idea which will be viewed by thousands of people. Go! That is the challenge put to doctoral researchers in the 2025 Vitae Three Minute Thesis competition, sponsored by The Conversation. The candidates must present a compelling spoken presentation on their research topic to non-experts in those three minutes. The competition is fierce, and this year is no exception.

Research doesn’t exist in a vacuum, and we all benefit from more open knowledge and understanding. The Conversation and the Vitae Three Minute Thesis (3MT®) competition aim to provide engaging, exciting and accessible insights into academic research, and to inspire new thinking.

There are three prizes up for grabs: the Judges Choice, selected by a panel of judges; the Editor’s Choice, selected by The Conversation; and the People’s Choice – chosen by you.

Six finalists will by vying for your vote and the online final will be broadcast on Wednesday 1 October at 12 noon
(GMT+1). Register to watch and vote for your favourite. All winners will be be announced on Friday October 3.

The six finalists are:

Miranda Qianyu Wang, Durham University. Miranda’s research examines the legal and ethical implications of neuroscientific evidence within the criminal justice system. By exploring the intersection of law, neuroscience, and criminal behaviour, she provides insightful comparative analyses on how justice systems might better integrate neuroscientific findings.

Abubakar Yunusa, Robert Gordon University. Abubakar specialises in hydrogen injection and mixing optimisation in natural gas pipelines. His research supports safer and more efficient transitions to low-carbon energy systems. Abubakar bridges technical expertise with real-world challenges in the energy transition.

Caitlin Campbell, Ulster University. Caitlin is an optometrist and PhD researcher who is passionate about preventing avoidable vision loss and supporting those with visual impairment. Through the development of a new vision test, her work aims to enable earlier detection of glaucoma-related vision loss, the leading cause of permanent blindness worldwide, and to accelerate access to treatment.

Yuxuan Wu, University of Birmingham. Yuxuan has a general interest in the intersection of new technologies and work and employment. Her research focuses on artificial intelligence (AI) and the future of work.

Vic Pickup, University of Reading. Vic is the author of three poetry books and a long-time lover of romance novels. She is currently working in the Mills & Boon archives held in the university’s special collections.

Cesar Portillo, University of West London. Cesar is a sound engineer and PhD candidate specialising in immersive audio and accessibility for visually impaired audiences. His research investigates how spatial sound and haptic feedback can transform virtual environments into inclusive narrative spaces.

The six above have already battled it out to win the 3MT® competition within their own institution, and have progressed through the national semi-finals. Who will get your vote?

Rachel Eastwood Cox, director of business operations at CRAC/Vitae, said: “The Three Minute Thesis (3MT®), launched in 2008 by the University of Queensland, Australia, dares doctoral candidates to do the impossible: explain years of complex research in a clear, captivating, and concise three-minute spoken presentation.

“Since 2014, Vitae has proudly hosted the UK’s national 3MT® competition, supporting Vitae member institutions in fostering a culture of effective research communication and public engagement.

“3MT® presentations have reached tens of thousands of viewers on YouTube, making cutting-edge research accessible and engaging to the wider public. It’s become a powerful way to spark curiosity and inspire the next generation of researchers.

To find out more about the finalists, the semi-finalists and the competition click here.

Vitae and its membership programme are managed by the Careers Research and Advisory Centre (CRAC) Limited, an independent registered charity.

– ref. The Conversation sponsors Vitae’s 2025 Three Minute Thesis competition – register to vote for your winner – https://theconversation.com/the-conversation-sponsors-vitaes-2025-three-minute-thesis-competition-register-to-vote-for-your-winner-265004

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Stefan Wolff, Professor of International Security, University of Birmingham

While the air and ground war in Ukraine grinds on, Moscow is increasing pressure on Kyiv’s western allies. Russian drone incursions into Poland in the early hours of September 10, and Romania a few days later, were followed by three Russian fighter jets breaching Estonian airspace on September 19.

And there has been speculation that drones which forced the temporary closure of Copenhagen and Oslo airports overnight are connected to the Kremlin as well.

While this might suggest a deliberate strategy of escalation on the part of the Russian president, Vladimir Putin, it is more likely an attempt to disguise the fact that the Kremlin’s narrative of inevitable victory is beginning to look shakier than ever.

A failed summer offensive that has been extremely costly in human lives is hardly something to cheer about. Estimates of Russian combat deaths now stand at just under 220,000. What’s more, this loss of life has produced little in territorial advances.

Since the start of the full-scale invasion in February 2022, Russia has gained some 70,000 sq km. This means that Moscow has nearly tripled the amount of territory it illegally occupies. But during its most recent summer offensive, it gained fewer than 2,000 sq km. On September 1, 2022, Russia controlled just over 20% of Ukrainian territory, three years later it was 19% (up from 18.5% at the beginning of 2025).

Perhaps most telling that the Russian narrative of inevitable victory is hollow is the fact that Russian forces were unable to convert a supposed breakthrough around Pokrovsk in the Donbas area of Ukraine in August into any solid gains after a successful Ukrainian counterattack.

That Russia is not winning, however, is hardly of comfort to Ukraine. Moscow still has the ability to attack night after night, exposing weaknesses in Ukraine’s air defence system and targeting critical infrastructure.

The western response, too, has been slow so far and has yet to send a clear signal to the Kremlin what Nato’s and the EU’s red lines are. While Nato swiftly launched Eastern Sentry in response to the Russian drone incursion into Poland, the operation’s deterrent effect appears rather limited given subsequent Russian incursions into Estonia and undeclared flights in neutral airspace near Poland and Germany.

Subsequent comments by Donald Tusk, the Polish prime minister, threatened to “shoot down flying objects when they violate our territory and fly over Poland”. He also cautioned that it was important “to think twice before deciding on actions that could trigger a very acute phase of conflict.”

On the other side of the Atlantic, Donald Trump, the US president, has said little about Russia ratcheting up pressure on Nato’s eastern flank. Regarding the Russian drone incursion into Poland, he mused that it could have been a mistake, before pledging to defend Nato allies in the event of a Russian attack.

This is certainly an improvement on his earlier threats to Nato solidarity, but it is at best a backstop against a full-blown Russian escalation. What it is not is a decisive step to ending the war against Ukraine. In fact, any such US steps seem ever farther off the agenda. The deadline that Trump gave Putin after their Alaska summit to start direct peace talks with Ukraine came and went without anything happening.

Europe scrambles to replace US guarantees

As for Trump’s phase-two sanctions on Russia and its enablers, these have now been made conditional by Trump on all Nato and G7 countries, imposing such sanctions first.

Meanwhile, US arms sales to Europe, meant to be channelled to strengthen Ukraine’s defences, have been scaled down by the Pentagon to replenish its own arsenals.

At the same time, a longstanding US support programme for the Baltic states – the Baltic security initiative – is under threat from cuts. There are justified worries that it could be discontinued as of next year.

As has been clear for some time, support for Ukraine – and ultimately the defence of Europe – is no longer a primary concern for the US under Trump. Yet European efforts to step into the gaping hole in the continent’s security left by US retrenchment are painfully slow. The defence budgets of the EU’s five biggest military spenders – France, Germany, Poland, Italy and the Netherlands – combined are less than one-quarter of what the US spends annually.

Even if money were not the issue, Europe has serious problems with its defence-industrial base. The EU’s flagship Security Action for Europe programme has faced months of delays over the participation of non-EU members – including the UK and Canada, two countries which have significant defence-industrial capacity.

European defence cooperation, including the flagship Future Combat Air System, is threatened by national quarrels, including between the EU’s two largest defence players, France and Germany.

Thus far, muddling through has worked for Ukraine’s western allies. This is mostly because Kyiv has held the line against the Russian onslaught. It has done so by making do with whatever the west provided while rapidly innovating its own defence sector.

It has also worked because Trump has not (yet) completely abandoned his European allies. There is enough life – or perhaps just enough ambiguity – left in the idea of Nato as a collective defence alliance to give Putin pause for thought. For now, he is merely testing boundaries. But if unchallenged, he might keep pushing further into uncharted territory – with unpredictable consequences.

Western stop-gap measures may be fine for now. But the west’s responses to Putin’s challenges – which are likely to become more frequent and more severe in the future – will require the European coalition of the willing to focus on the here and now and raise its level of preparedness.

Stefan Wolff is a past recipient of grant funding from the Natural Environment Research Council of the UK, the United States Institute of Peace, the Economic and Social Research Council of the UK, the British Academy, the NATO Science for Peace Programme, the EU Framework Programmes 6 and 7 and Horizon 2020, as well as the EU’s Jean Monnet Programme. He is a Trustee and Honorary Treasurer of the Political Studies Association of the UK and a Senior Research Fellow at the Foreign Policy Centre in London.

– ref. Russian incursions into Nato airspace show Ukraine’s allied coalition needs to be ready as well as willing – https://theconversation.com/russian-incursions-into-nato-airspace-show-ukraines-allied-coalition-needs-to-be-ready-as-well-as-willing-265776

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Karen Roehr-Brackin, Reader, Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex

If you’ve always wanted to learn a new language, don’t let age put you off. People aged over 60 can be independent and flexible in how they learn a language – and successful, too.

There is ample evidence from decades of research that, as we age, some of our perceptual and cognitive abilities gradually decline. Our hearing and vision are not as sharp as they used to be, we process information less speedily, and our memory may not be as good as it was when we were younger. These are all known corollaries of healthy ageing which do not normally have a major adverse impact on daily life.

What is noted less frequently is the possibility that these effects need not be deficits in themselves, but may arise from a lifetime of accumulated knowledge and experience. The older we get, the more information we have to sort through, and this may slow us down. In this context, it is also important to highlight the fact that general and especially verbal knowledge can actually grow with increasing age.

In line with this, researchers have investigated language learning in late adulthood and shown that there is no age limit to our ability to learn a new language – we can do it at any point in our lives. However, it is less clear which approach to language learning and teaching works best later in life.

Research with younger adults indicates that an explicit approach which includes explanations of the target language and spells out grammar rules, for instance, is most effective.

At first glance, we may assume that this should apply to older adults too, or indeed that it should be even more true for them, given that it reflects a traditional approach to language instruction. Older adults may well have experienced exactly such an approach during their schooling and may therefore favour it.

To date, there is surprisingly little research that has put this assumption to the test. A recent study in the Netherlands found no evidence that late-life language learners would do better with an explicit approach.

Indeed, it did not matter whether instruction was explicit or implicit, that is, with or without any grammatical explanations. The senior volunteers did equally well, regardless of how they were taught.

Comparing approaches

In my new study with colleague Renato Pavlekovic, we compared an explicit with an incidental approach to language learning. In a small set of online lessons, 80 English-speaking volunteers aged between 60 and 83 learned the beginnings of Croatian – a language they were completely unfamiliar with.

In the explicit approach, a full explanation of the grammatical structure we targeted was given. In the incidental approach, there was no explanation, but additional practice exercises were available instead.

We found that learners did equally well regardless of the instructional approach they experienced. They first learned a set of vocabulary items and subsequently the targeted grammatical structure to a high level of success, achieving average scores of around 80% accuracy. This suggests that the teaching approach did not matter to these late-life learners – they could find their own way independently of how the learning materials were presented.

In this new study, we also explored the role of cognitive and perceptual factors as well as our volunteers’ self-concepts: that is, how they felt about their own health, happiness and abilities. In addition, we asked questions about their (former) occupations and prior language learning experience. Interestingly, we found a connection between the ability to learn implicitly (that is, picking things up from context without being aware of it), occupational status (whether someone was retired or still working) and self-concepts.

Specifically, people who reported a more positive self-concept showed better implicit learning abilities. Moreover, people who were still working at the time of the study showed better implicit learning abilities than individuals who were retired – something we had observed in a previous study too. Importantly, this effect was independent of age.

Superficially, a link between employment status, implicit learning ability and self-concept may not make much sense. There is arguably a common denominator, though: confidence could be at the centre of a self-reinforcing cycle. A person with strong implicit learning ability remains in the workforce for longer. This boosts their self-concept, which in turn makes them continue with their occupation for longer.

While in work, they need to take the rough with the smooth; they cannot only engage in activities they enjoy. This means that they continue drawing on their implicit learning ability, and so forth.

Taken together, the results of our study show that late-life language learners can be very successful. They seem to be sufficiently independent to choose the path that works best for them, so it does not matter so much which teaching approach is used. In addition, confidence is important; it appears to arise from a combination of ability and social status.

Karen Roehr-Brackin received funding from the British Academy/Leverhulme Trust (grant reference SRG23230787) which supported the research project reported here.

– ref. Your age shouldn’t put you off learning a new language – what the research says – https://theconversation.com/your-age-shouldnt-put-you-off-learning-a-new-language-what-the-research-says-263581

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Joni Wildman, PhD Candidate in Mycology, University of Bath

A new European health survey shows that Candidozyma auris – a dangerous drug-resistant fungus – is spreading rapidly in hospitals across the continent. Cases and outbreaks are increasing, with some countries now seeing ongoing local transmission.

Here’s what you need to know about this deadly fungus.

What is C auris?

Scientists first isolated C auris from the ear of a Japanese patient in 2009. It has since spread to hospitals in over 40 countries.

C auris is a yeast species – single-celled microorganisms from the fungi kingdom. While yeasts contribute to a healthy microbiome and many people experience only mild yeast infections when microbial balance becomes disrupted, C auris is far more dangerous. The fungus usually causes only mild infections in healthy people, but in patients with weakened immune systems, it can prove deadly, particularly when it enters the bloodstream and vital organs.

The fungus primarily affects severely ill patients, spreading from the skin into the bloodstream and organs.

Why is it dangerous?

C auris causes severe organ infections when it breaches the body’s natural defences. Between 30% and 60% of patients with invasive C auris infections die. And patients who carry the fungus risk developing infections themselves and spreading it to others.

The fungus can be very difficult to treat because some strains are resistant to nearly all available drugs. C auris appears to evolve rapidly, with new drug-resistant strains emerging regularly.

How does it spread?

C auris spreads mainly in hospitals through direct contact with infected people or contaminated surfaces. The fungus produces proteins called adhesins that help it stick to surfaces, making it very hard to remove.

Why is it spreading so quickly?

C auris spreads quickly because hospitals struggle to detect and eliminate the fungus. People can carry it on their skin without symptoms, unknowingly bringing it into hospitals. And diagnosis is difficult. Standard laboratory tests misidentify C auris as more common yeasts. Hospitals need specialised methods to correctly identify it, so early cases go unidentified without access to these tools.

The fungus grows well at higher temperatures (optimally at 37-40°C), thriving on warm bodies. It also withstands routine disinfection. C auris forms biofilms – layers of microbial growth that prove extremely difficult to eliminate.

How common is it in Europe?

C auris has spread fast across Europe. Once limited to isolated cases, it now causes sustained hospital outbreaks. Between 2013 and 2023, there were over 4,000 cases, including 1,300 in 2023 alone.

The UK recorded 134 cases between November 2024 and April 2025 – a 23% increase compared with the previous six months.

In some European countries, the fungus has become endemic in hospitals, and true numbers may be higher because of limited testing.

Globally, C auris has reached every continent except Antarctica.

Scientists have identified distinct genetic groups that dominate in different regions, each varying in how easily they spread and how resistant they are to treatment, making control more difficult.

What are health authorities doing about it?

Health authorities recognise that they need to contain C auris and are taking action. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control has called for stronger surveillance, and the World Health Organization has placed C auris on its list of priority fungal pathogens.

In the UK, new guidance sets out practical steps for hospitals, highlighting the careful and responsible use of antifungal drugs as crucial for controlling the disease.

Can it be stopped?

Hospitals can stop or at least control C auris. Those acting quickly have successfully contained outbreaks. Experts stress that a critical window exists when rigorous measures can stamp out a single case or small outbreak. However, once C auris spreads widely in a hospital or region, it becomes extremely difficult to stop.

What’s being done about it?

Hospitals and governments need to act swiftly. Hospitals must strengthen their infection-control practices, while governments should mandate that every case of C auris is reported to health agencies so its spread can be tracked. Public health authorities can help by issuing clear guidance and expanding access to reliable tests, and specialised response teams should be ready to support hospitals during outbreaks.

What happens if it’s not contained?

If authorities allow C auris to spread unchecked, it could become a permanent healthcare menace, causing frequent outbreaks that mean higher costs, strained hospital capacity, and more illness and deaths.

We might also see C auris evolve even greater drug resistance through continued circulation. Scientists have already found some strains that resist all major antifungal drugs. This is why health authorities stress the need for immediate action while containing and limiting C auris remains possible. Without urgent action, this fungus could become a permanent fixture in hospitals, driving up infections,costs and deaths.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Deadly drug-resistant fungus spreading rapidly through European hospitals – https://theconversation.com/deadly-drug-resistant-fungus-spreading-rapidly-through-european-hospitals-265328

Source: The Conversation – UK – By George Kyris, Associate Professor in International Politics, University of Birmingham

The UK, France, Canada and Australia are among a group of nations that are moving to formally recognise the state of Palestine like most other states have done over the years. This move is a major diplomatic shift and turning point in one of the world’s most intractable conflicts. Here’s what it means.

What does it mean to recognise Palestine?

Recognising Palestine means acknowledging the existence of a state that represents the Palestinian people. Following from that, it also means that the recogniser can develop full diplomatic relations with representatives of this state – which would include exchanging embassies or negotiating government-level agreements.

Why have these countries moved together – and why now?

Diplomatic recognition, when done in concert, carries more heft than isolated gestures – and governments know this. A year or so ago, Spain tried to get European Union members to recognise Palestine together and when this was not possible opted to coordinate its recognition with Norway and Ireland only. Further away, a cluster of Caribbean countries (Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas) also recognised Palestine around the same time.

By acting together, countries amplify the message that Palestinian statehood is not a fringe idea, but a legitimate aspiration backed by a growing international consensus. This collective recognition also serves to shield individual governments from accusations of unilateralism or political opportunism.

This wave of recognition comes now because of concern that Palestinian statehood is under threat, perhaps more than ever before. In their recognition statements, the UK and Canada cited Israel’s settlements in the West Bank in their reasoning.

The Israeli government has also revealed plans that amount to annexing Gaza, the other area that ought to belong to Palestinians. This is after months of assault on its people, which the UN commission of inquiry on the occupied Palestinian Territories and Israel found amounts to genocide. Public sentiment has also shifted dramatically in support of Palestine, adding to the pressure on governments.

Why do some say recognition isn’t legal?

Israel and some of its allies argue that the recognition is illegal because Palestine lacks the attributes of a functioning state, such as full control of its territory or a centralised government. Legal opinion on whether Palestine meets the criteria of statehood is divided. But, regardless, these criteria are not consistently used to recognise states.

In fact, many states have been recognised well before they had complete control over their borders or institutions. Ironically, the US recognised Israel in 1948, refuting critics that this was premature due to the lack of clear borders. Recognition has, therefore, always been political.

But even if we take a more legal perspective, the international community, through numerous UN and other texts has long recognised the right of Palestinians to have a state of their own.

Does recognition ‘reward Hamas’, as Israel claims?

Recognising a state does not mean you recognise those who govern it. At the moment, for example, many states do not recognise Taliban rule, but this doesn’t mean they have stopped recognising the existence of Afghanistan as a state.

Similarly, the fact that Netanyahu is under arrest warrant of the International Criminal Court for war crimes and crimes against humanity has not resulted in states withdrawing their recognition of the state of Israel and its people. Recognising a state is not the same as endorsing a specific government.

Not only that but all of the states that recently recognised Palestine have explicitly said that Hamas must play no role in a future government. France said that although it recognises the state of Palestine it won’t open an embassy until Hamas releases the hostages.

Will recognition make a difference?

The past few years have laid bare the limits of diplomacy in stopping the horrific human catastrophe unfolding in Gaza. This doesn’t leave much room for optimism. And, in a way, states taking brave diplomatic steps are, at the same time, exposing their reluctance to take more concrete action, such as sanctions, to press the government of Israel to end its war.

Still, the recognition brings the potential for snowball effects that would enhance the Palestinians’ international standing. They will be able to work more substantively with those governments who now recognise their state. More states may now also recognise Palestine, motivated by the fact others did the same.

And more recognition means better access to international forums, aid and legal instruments. For example, the UN’s recognition of Palestine as an observer state in 2011 allowed the International Court of Justice to hear South Africa’s case accusing Israel of genocide and the International Criminal Court to issue an arrest warrant for Netanyahu.

The implications for the Israeli government and some of its allies could also be significant. The US will now be isolated as the only permanent member of the UN Security Council not recognising Palestine. States that do not recognise Palestine will be in a dissenting minority and more exposed to critiques in international forums and public opinion.

This growing isolation may not force immediate changes and may not bother the current US administration, which often does not follow the logic of traditional diplomacy. Still, over time, the pressure on Israel and its allies to engage with a peace process may grow.

In the end, recognition from some of the world’s biggest players breaks their longstanding alignment with consecutive Israeli governments. It shows how strongly their public and governments feel about Israel’s threat to Palestinian statehood through annexation and occupation. For Palestinians, recognition strengthens their political and moral standing. For the government of Israel, it does the opposite.

But recognition alone is not enough. It must be accompanied by sustained efforts to end the war in Gaza, hold perpetrators of violence accountable and revive peace efforts towards ending the occupation and allow Palestinians their rightful sovereignty alongside Israel.

George Kyris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. The UK, France, Canada and Australia have recognised Palestine – what does that mean? Expert Q+A – https://theconversation.com/the-uk-france-canada-and-australia-have-recognised-palestine-what-does-that-mean-expert-q-a-265790

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Adaikala Antonysunil, Senior Lecturer in Biochemistry, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University

A major new analysis is drawing fresh attention to the possible links between gestational diabetes and long-term brain health in both mothers and their children. The review, which combined data from 48 studies conducted over nearly 50 years, suggests that diabetes during pregnancy may have effects that extend well beyond childbirth, influencing memory, learning and mental health.

Gestational diabetes occurs when blood sugar rises during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester. Unlike type 1 or type 2 diabetes, it usually disappears after the child has been born. However, women who experience it are at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

The condition is also becoming more common worldwide, partly because more women begin pregnancy overweight and are having children at an older age. Current estimates suggest it now affects one in seven pregnancies.

The new research, which is yet to be peer reviewed, found notable differences in outcomes for children exposed to gestational diabetes in the womb.

On average, they were 36% more likely to be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 56% more likely to develop autism and 45% more likely to have developmental delays compared with those whose mothers had normal blood sugar during pregnancy. They also scored lower on IQ tests – nearly four points less on average – with particular difficulties in verbal skills and accumulated knowledge.

For mothers, the differences were less striking but still measurable. Those who had gestational diabetes scored about 2.5 points lower on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, a widely used test of memory, attention and problem-solving. While this is only a modest drop, it suggests that even temporary changes in blood sugar during pregnancy could have subtle long-term effects on brain function.

Researchers also identified biological markers that may help explain these outcomes. Children born to mothers with gestational diabetes had lower levels of a protein called brain-derived neurotrophic factor, or BDNF.

This protein supports the growth and repair of brain cells and is vital for learning and memory. Reduced levels could point to slower or less resilient brain development, though the precise effect is still uncertain.

Why these links exist remains an open question. Scientists believe that high blood sugar during pregnancy may lead to inflammation and increased oxidative stress, both of which can damage cells. Changes in how the placenta works may also alter the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the developing baby. In addition, the high insulin levels often seen with gestational diabetes could influence how brain connections are formed.

Another area of focus is epigenetics – the chemical modifications that affect how genes are switched on or off. Diet during pregnancy can trigger such changes, potentially influencing how the baby’s metabolism and brain develop.

Studies suggest that vitamin B12, which plays an epigenetic role in DNA repair and gene regulation, may be especially important. Low levels of B12, often linked to diets high in ultra-processed food, have been associated with poorer outcomes in foetal development, though the evidence is not yet conclusive.

It is important to stress the limits of the research. All of the studies included in the analysis were observational, meaning they can show associations but cannot prove cause and effect. Many other factors – including genetics, family environment and wider health inequalities – also shape outcomes for both mothers and children.

The fact that no major structural brain differences were detected between exposed and non-exposed children suggests that any effects are subtle, perhaps confined to language, attention or memory.

Even so, the findings carry important implications for healthcare. They underline the value of careful glucose monitoring during pregnancy and of lifestyle approaches such as healthy diet and regular physical activity, which are proven ways of managing gestational diabetes. Medical treatment, where required, also plays a crucial role in reducing risks.

For mothers, the research suggests that support should continue after birth, not only to monitor blood sugar but also to keep an eye on cognitive health. For children, early developmental checks could help identify those who might benefit from extra support in learning or behaviour.

Not about blame

Researchers emphasise that these findings are not about blame. Gestational diabetes arises from a complex mix of biological, genetic and environmental factors, many of which are outside individual control. Rather, the analysis points to the need for broader public health strategies and improved support systems during and after pregnancy.

As one of the most comprehensive reviews of its kind, the study adds weight to the idea that gestational diabetes may have lasting consequences that extend beyond pregnancy itself. With prevalence rising worldwide, better understanding of these links is vital for protecting the wellbeing of both mothers and their children.

Future studies may help refine dietary and lifestyle recommendations, exploring how nutrients such as vitamin B12 interact with gestational diabetes. By deepening our understanding of these processes, researchers hope to develop more targeted ways to safeguard brain health across generations.

The findings suggest that gestational diabetes is not only a temporary disruption of blood sugar but may also be linked to subtle, lasting changes in cognitive outcomes. As awareness grows, so too does the importance of early care and sustained support for families affected by this increasingly common condition.

Adaikala Antonysunil receives funding from Diabetes Research Wellness Foundation, BBSRC, Rosetrees Trust and Society of Endocrinology.

– ref. Gestational diabetes linked to autism and ADHD in new study – https://theconversation.com/gestational-diabetes-linked-to-autism-and-adhd-in-new-study-265525

Source: The Conversation – UK – By Morgan Currie, Lecturer in Data & Society, University of Edinburgh

More than a decade of underfunding by successive governments has left the UK’s justice system in crisis. There is now a significant backlog in cases and court dates are being cancelled due to logistical problems.

Powerful voices in UK politics, including the Tony Blair Institute and Policy Exchange think tanks, have put their weight behind artificial intelligence (AI) as a potential solution to problems being experienced across the public sector. Some of those voices believe that AI could liberate staff from bureaucratic workloads and give them more time to concentrate on the human aspects of justice, such as face-to-face engagement with clients.

In January, the Labour government announced a plan to “unleash” AI across the UK in a bid to “turbocharge” growth, boost living standards and revolutionise public services.

So how might AI affect the UK’s justice system?

The current focus on AI has been largely driven by developments in large language models (LLMs). This is the technology behind AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. But automation, machine learning, and other AI tools are not novel features of the justice system.

Older tools such as Technology Assisted Review used a form of AI to help lawyers predict the probable relevance of documents to a particular case or matter. More controversially, risk-scoring algorithms have been used in probation and immigration cases.

Critics of the last example have warned that these systems entrench inequalities and affect people in life altering ways without their knowledge.

However, these automated risk scoring systems are substantially different in nature to the productivity tools based on LLMs that are aimed at streamlining administrative processes. The latter can draft statements as well as scheduling and transcribing meetings.

They can also retrieve and summarise sources for document reviews and case law. Apparent success stories include the Old Bailey saving £50,000 by using AI to process evidence overviews for court cases.

How and why these tools are implemented – the institutional context – matters enormously. When digital tools are used not to provide more space for the human aspects of justice, but instead to cut costs, the harms fall especially heavily on vulnerable clients.

This is because even these seemingly routine administrative uses of AI require human reviewers to catch plausible, but wrong, information produced by these tools and to exercise expert judgment.

Evidence from a small scale Home Office pilot scheme shows why this is important. The pilot scheme used LLMs to summarise asylum case documents and transcripts to support asylum decisions.

Some 9% of the results were found to be inaccurate and missing interview references. Another 23% of users testing the scheme did not feel fully confident in the summaries, despite significant time savings.

Justice and digitisation

In July 2025, the Ministry of Justice published its AI Action Plan for Justice. While Microsoft’s Copilot Chat is already available for judicial office holders, the strategy document promised to roll out AI tools to 95,000 justice staff by December.

The plan acknowledges the many limitations of AI. It also establishes a chief AI officer, creates AI guidelines and emphasises that AI should “support, not substitute” human judgment.

It emphasises a cautious method towards roll-out, including an effort to gather feedback from trade unions and the public. It also stresses transparency through a new website and ethics framework.

The plan continues to promote more controversial uses of the technology, including assessing a person’s risk of violence in custody. Nevertheless, it focuses more heavily on LLMs for time saving tasks in administration.

However, could the new strategy lead to the adoption of LLM tools by the justice system before there is a mature understanding of how they are best applied? Decisions based in part on AI generated evidence are likely to offer new grounds for complaints and challenges. This could add to, rather than reduce, the backlog in cases.

In June 2025, a senior UK judge warned lawyers against the use of LLM tools because of the potential for those tools to “hallucinate” – generate fictitious information. There have been a number of cases elsewhere in the world where fictitious AI-generated material has apparently been filed in court cases.

Given their limitations, any benefits of these tools will generally be seen in those parts of the system where resources and time for human oversight are at their highest. The risks will hit hardest where human time and resources are low and where clients have less money and time to challenge decisions.

This unequal access to justice is not solely an AI issue. Previous waves of digitisation used to reduce the bureaucratic load included allowing some guilty pleas to be lodged online and automatic online convictions for some crimes, which would otherwise have required a court hearing.

As Gemma Birkett, lecturer in criminal justice at City St Georges University, argues, these automated systems particularly affect marginalised women, who are far more likely to plead guilty to crimes they did not commit.

Papering over the cracks

There are powerful arguments to be made in favour of using bespoke, carefully developed technology to remove the administrative burden on justice system staff, so that they can concentrate on the aspects of their work best delivered by people.

But when the current system is struggling, adopting LLMs (or other forms of rapid digitisation) will not fix the deep underlying problems caused by years of austerity. Rather than reducing bureaucracy, they risk papering over the cracks in a dysfunctional system.

Ben Collier receives funding from the Scottish Institute for Policing Research and is the Chair of the Foundation for Information Policy Research.

Alexandra Ba-Tin and Morgan Currie do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. AI use by UK justice system risks papering over the cracks caused by years of underfunding – https://theconversation.com/ai-use-by-uk-justice-system-risks-papering-over-the-cracks-caused-by-years-of-underfunding-264749