According to Statistics Canada, the unemployment rate for youth aged 15-24 is 12.2 per cent — over double that of the prime working-age population.
The outlook is bleaker for students planning to return to full-time studies in the fall. Unemployment for this group has reached just over 20 per cent, the highest level since 2009, when the global economy was reeling from the Great Recession.
Roles in retail, hospitality and customer service often serve as a first taste of working life, helping young people build confidence, develop transferable skills and expand their professional networks. Without access to these opportunities, many young Canadians risk falling behind before their careers even begin.
The long-term implications are serious. According to a 2024 report from consulting firm Deloitte, Canada stands to lose $18.5 billion in GDP over the next decade if youth unemployment remains high.
Young Canadians are facing one of the toughest hiring seasons in years. (Shutterstock)
Many young job-seekers are understandably discouraged by today’s labour market. But as digital natives, Gen Z have advantages to bring to the table, including creativity, values-driven mindsets and fluency in technology.
The key is to stay open, proactive and creative by pursuing non-linear experiences that can serve as legitimate entry points into the workforce. Here are four actionable strategies for Gen Z starting their careers:
Side projects, such as building websites or freelancing, can also help people start their careers. These are increasingly recognized as valid ways to break into the job market.
2. Build core skills that matter.
The World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report identifies analytical thinking, resilience, creativity, leadership and self-awareness as the most in-demand skills for the future. These can be developed through volunteer work, community leadership, mentorship or personal projects.
As workplaces adopt AI and automation, tech literacy is becoming increasingly valuable. Microcredentials can help build specialized skills, while apprenticeships and other experiential learning opportunities offer experiences that employers value.
Networks are also a key part of job success. Relationships with peers, mentors and community members can provide support, broaden perspectives and lead to unexpected opportunities. Participating in interest groups or volunteering can help young workers feel more connected and confident while developing skills that matter.
A new working generation
While these steps won’t solve the systemic challenges facing the labour market, they can help young Canadians gain traction in a system that is still catching up to the needs of their generation.
This will require the collaboration of government, employers, educational institutions and community service providers to innovatively reduce existing barriers. Importantly, these sectors are being asked to “walk the talk” when it comes to addressing youth unemployment.
Gen Z is entering the workforce during a time of profound economic and social change. But they also have unparalleled access to information, supportive communities and platforms to share ideas and make a meaningful impact.
By acting with intention, young Canadians can navigate this landscape with agency, laying the foundation not only for jobs but for careers that reflect their values and ambitions.
Leda Stawnychko receives funding from SSHRC.
Warren Boyd Ferguson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Only nine per cent of Canadian students learn about climate change often in school, while 42 per cent say it’s rarely or never discussed in the classroom.
These are some of the concerning findings from the new 2025 national survey at the nonprofit Learning for a Sustainable Future (LSF), where I serve as a research consultant. Our team surveyed over 4,200 people, including students, educators, parents and the general public.
The message is clear: Canadians want schools to do more. A strong majority of respondents (62 per cent) believe climate change should be a high priority in education. More than half (56 per cent) believe it should be taught by all teachers.
Understanding is slipping
According to the survey, 80 per cent of Canadians accept that climate change is real and impacting their lives. Most (67 per cent) believe we are in a climate emergency, yet this belief has declined from 72 per cent in 2022.
Also slipping is Canadians’ understanding of climate change, as the pass rate for the survey’s 10-question quiz dipped to 57 per cent in 2025 from 67 per cent in 2022.
Fewer respondents correctly identified human activities as the primary cause of climate change, or named greenhouse gas emissions as the predominant factor. Many still mistakenly believe the ozone hole is to blame, highlighting one of many persistent climate misconceptions.
Also concerning was the increase in Canadians who felt that the seriousness of climate change is exaggerated.
A recent report by climate communications centre Re.Climate noted a similar decline in public perception of how much of a threat climate change poses. In 2023, 44 per cent of Canadians said reducing carbon emissions was a top energy policy priority. By 2025, that number had dropped to 31 per cent.
The LSF survey highlights Canadians’ dissatisfaction with climate education. When asked to grade schools on how well they were addressing climate change issues, only four per cent gave schools an “A.” Three-quarters of Canadians gave a “C” or lower.
One dominant concern included addressing the spread of climate misinformation. Only 17 per cent of Canadians felt confident in their ability to distinguish between real and false climate news.
Misinformation is a growing barrier to public understanding and action on climate issues. For many young people, social media is a dominant source of climate information, but it’s not always a reliable one.
To address this, almost 80 per cent of respondents, and in particular 87 per cent of educators, agree that climate education in schools should focus more on critical thinking and media literacy.
Teachers willing, but under-supported
The good news is that almost half of the educators we surveyed felt confident about their ability to teach climate change. Many are incorporating more climate-related projects and lifestyle and consumer changes into the classroom.
However, many barriers remain. Most educators still spend fewer than 10 hours per year on climate topics, and 42 per cent rarely address it at all. A full 60 per cent of teachers told us they want to do more but need professional development to feel equipped.
Teachers need more time, resources and strategies to address how climate change connects to broader issues like mental health, social justice and Indigenous knowledge.
Educators are also seeking a school-wide culture that promotes climate change education, but nearly half said they lack support from their principal or school boards.
Unsurprisingly, given the global nature of climate change, the challenges voiced by educators are not unique to Canada. Surveys of teachers in England and the United States found they face similar obstacles, compounded by low teacher confidence, the complexity of the topic and leadership not supporting climate change as a priority.
Almost half of the educators surveyed felt confident about their ability to teach climate change, and many are incorporating more climate-related projects and lifestyle and consumer changes into the classroom. (Shutterstock)
Students need the opportunity
One of the most hopeful takeaways is that students want to learn more about climate change at school, beginning in the early grades. When asked what they would tell their teacher, students told us they wanted lessons that go beyond the science to include real-world solutions and personal empowerment.
They called for open classroom discussions, a clearer understanding of the impacts of climate change and concrete strategies for action.
As one student put it: “Present it to me in a way that’s relevant that I can understand, and tell me how I can personally make an impact.”
Another added: “Everyone needs to do their part or nothing will change!”
These appeals echo those from the recent Voice of 1,000 Kids survey, which found young people want adults to take the climate crisis more seriously and step up to help solve it.
The LSF survey found that 76 per cent of respondents recognize that systemic change is needed to address climate challenges, yet only 19 per cent believe government is doing a good job.
This suggests strong public demand for policy action. Canadian governments must introduce mandatory climate curriculum standards, increased funding for teacher professional learning and resources, and transformative teaching strategies to foster critical thinking and empowerment.
Almost 70 per cent of respondents said they believe young people can inspire important climate action. Supporting school-wide cultures that embrace sustainability isn’t just good teaching — it’s a pathway to broader social change.
Now more than ever, we need a reimagined education system that values climate learning as a core competency. Policymakers and education leaders must rise to meet this challenge before another generation of students graduate feeling unprepared to face the defining issue of their time.
Karen S. Acton works as a consultant for Learning for a Sustainable Future (LSF).
A landmark multibillion-dollar legal settlement is set to transform the landscape of college sports in the United States. A court recently approved the House v. NCAA settlement, requiring the NCAA (the National Collegiate Athletic Association) to pay nearly US$2.8 billion in damages over the next 10 years to athletes who competed from 2016 through to the present day.
The settlement opens the door for college athletes to earn a share of revenue moving forward, marking a shift away from the traditional ideals of amateurism in sport.
The concept of NIL (name, image and likeness) has only exacerbated this by encouraging athletes to promote themselves on social media. Some sport organizations now even factor social media presence into recruitment decisions.
These developments raise key questions: should we be treating athletes as brands? And what are the consequences of doing so, both on and off the field?
Social media and the modern athlete
Social media offers a way for athletes to build a community of followers, share and discuss their personal lives, and interact with fans.
For many athletes, social media platforms have become tools for building a personal brand and differentiating themselves from other competitors and ultimately having more control over their public image. In turn, social media can allow them to seek out sponsorships and endorsement deals.
However, research also shows there are negative side-effects of social media use. It also exposes athletes to public scrutiny and online abuse from fans, and can lead to effects similar to cyber-bullying.
One study of NCAA Division I athletes found that maintaining a polished image on Twitter lead student-athletes to censor themselves to uphold a certain image, which stifled their self-expression. Athletes also reported that social media affected their concentration and raised performance anxiety due to pressure to perform well or face negative critiques.
My master’s thesis found that social media, and the way athletes use it, influences self-efficacy in combat sport athletes. I found that what athletes see online can disrupt their belief in their own abilities, sometimes more than their actual experience in sport.
Impact on youth athletes
My PhD research found that many athletes are unaware of how social media affects their mental game and performance. There’s even less information about how social media impacts youth athletes.
Elite athletes already face a unique set of pressures: rigorous training schedules, limited leisure time, injury risks, competition pressure and the pursuit of scholarships or team placements. For young athletes, these challenges are layered on top of the developmental process of forming a sense of self. Social media now plays a central role in this development.
For youth athletes, athletic identity becomes a major part of this process. It shapes how they think, feel, behave and relate to others through their connection to sport.
But there is a complex relationship between social media and adolescent psychosocial development. Excessive or problematic social media use can negatively impact mental health and well-being, increasing risk of depression, low self-esteem, harassment and burnout.
Despite these risks, there is limited social media training for athletes, and many are unaware of the effects social media use has on their performance.
Coaches see the impact
Since social media is now a constant part of athletes’ lives, understanding how coaches view it is essential. Research shows coaches are often more aware of how social media impacts their athletes’ performance and engagement. Many see it as a growing challenge.
Many of the coaches I interviewed expressed concern that social media places too much emphasis on results and encourages constant comparison with others.
They felt the instant feedback loop introduced too many voices that competed with their own, making it harder for athletes to focus on performance goals and training. Many of the coaches also believed athletes could become overly concerned with their public image and how they are perceived.
What’s needed are tools to help coaches engage with their athletes and help them understand how social media influences their mental performance and well-being. Resources need to go beyond helping coaches use technology to providing them with information on how to communicate with their athletes safely or protect them from liability.
Rather than focusing on controlling what athletes post on social media, organizations should educate athletes on the way social media might affect them while they are using it. This starts with awareness.
Unlike their peers, many athletes are encouraged to use social media to brand themselves. Because of this, they need to understand how to balance healthy engagement and harmful overuse.
At the same time, coaches also need better education. There must be a spectrum between coaches who don’t want anything to do with social media at all and coaches who are overly involved in their athlete’s social media.
Coaching resources need to be created to address this. They should be accessible, and provide effective and appropriate assistance that aligns with, and supports, individual coaching methods. A one-size-fits-all solution is unlikely to be effective.
Social media is here to stay, and both athletes and coaches need the tools to help them navigate it well.
Elyse Gorrell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The attack left the campus shaken and sparked national outrage. Many saw the attack as a shocking but isolated act of violence. But a close analysis of his 223-word manifesto reveals much more.
What emerges is a chilling picture of how deep-seated misogyny, disguised as grievance and moral outrage, can escalate ideological violence. Though short, the manifesto is saturated with anti-feminist, conspiratorial rhetoric.
As a researcher looking at digital extremism and gender-based violence, I’ve analyzed more than 100 manifestos written by people who carried out mass shootings, stabbings, vehicular attacks and other acts of ideologically, politically and religiously motivated violent extremism in Canada, the United States and beyond.
These attackers may not belong to formal terrorist organizations, but their writings reveal consistent ideological patterns. Among them, one stands out: misogyny.
Misogyny is the ‘gateway drug’
The Waterloo case is not unique. In fact, it mirrors a growing number of violent incidents where gender-based hate plays a central role. Reports by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue and Public Safety Canada show misogynist extremism is rising in Canada. It’s often entangled with white nationalism, anti-LGBTQ+ hate and anti-government sentiment.
According to political sociologist Yasmin Wong, misogyny now acts as a “gateway drug” to broader extremist ideologies. This is particularly true in digital spaces where hate and grievance are cultivated algorithmically.
In my analysis of manifestos collected from 1966 to 2025, gender identity-driven violence appeared in nearly 40 per cent of them. These violent beliefs were either the primary or a significant secondary motivation for the attack. This includes direct expressions of hatred toward women, trans and queer people and references to feminist or LGBTQ+ movements.
‘Salad bar’extremism
The Waterloo attacker did not explicitly identify as an “incel” (involuntary celibate), but the language in his manifesto closely echoes those found in incel and broader manosphere discourse. Feminism is portrayed as dangerous, gender studies as ideological indoctrination and universities as battlegrounds in a supposed culture war.
The Waterloo attacker destroyed a Pride flag during the attack, referred to the professor he targeted as a “Marxist,” and told police he hoped his actions would serve as a “wake-up call.”
At one point, he praised leaders like Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán and Canadian far-right politician Maxime Bernier as “basedChads.” “Based Chads” is a slang term used in online extremist communities to glorify or refer to dominant and assertive males.
Alongside anti-feminist messaging, the attacker’s writing echoes common far-right narratives: fear of “cultural Marxism,” disdain for liberal elites, and the belief that violence is necessary to awaken the public. He referenced prior mass attacks, including the 2011 Norway massacre and the 2019 Christchurch mosque shooting. These two incidents are frequently celebrated in far-right spaces.
These references place him within a transnational digital subculture where misogyny, white supremacy and ideological violence are valourized.
It reflects what researchers described as “salad bar extremism”: a mix-and-match worldview where misogyny is blended with white nationalism, anti-government sentiment and conspiratorial thinking to justify violence.
But the manifestos are valuable documents for understanding how ideology works. They show how people rationalize violence, where their ideas come from and how they see themselves as political entities. They also reveal the role of digital communities in shaping those beliefs.
Researchers can use them to map ideological ecosystems and identify patterns. These analyses can inform prevention strategies.
The Waterloo manifesto is no exception. It draws from a familiar ideological playbook — one that dehumanizes feminists, academics and LGBTQ+ people while portraying violence as both righteous and necessary.
While a psychological assessment of the attacker raised questions about a psychotic break, there was no clinical diagnosis of psychosis. His actions — planning the attack, writing and posting a manifesto, selecting a specific target — were deliberate and ideologically motivated.
Yet the terrorism charge brought against him by federal prosecutors was ultimately dropped. The judge ruled his beliefs were “too scattered and disparate” to constitute a coherent ideology.
But his manifesto shared language and ideological frameworks recognizable across incel, anti-feminist and far-right communities. The idea that this doesn’t constitute “ideology” reflects how outdated our legal and policy frameworks have become.
Confronting ongoing danger
Two years on, we remember the victims of the Waterloo attack. We must also confront the larger danger the attack represents.
Misogyny is not just a cultural or emotional problem. Instead, it increasingly functions as an ideological gateway, connecting personal grievance with broader calls for violent extremism.
In this era of rising lone-actor violence, it is one of the most consistent and dangerous drivers of extremism.
If we continue to treat gender-based hate as peripheral or personal, we will keep misunderstanding the nature of violent radicalization in Canada. We must name this threat and take it seriously, because that’s the only way to prepare for what’s coming next.
Karmvir K. Padda receives research funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
Escapist marketing is a strategy that creates emotionally immersive experiences to help consumers temporarily escape from reality, often through fantasy, nostalgia or idealized lifestyles. It taps into the desire for relief from stress or monotony by offering imaginative or aspirational narratives.
A video introducing ‘It’s Always Burberry Weather: London in Love,’ a series of seven films by Burberry inspired by British romantic comedies.
Escapist marketing has been gaining traction in Canada as consumers are drawn to brands that spark imagination and emotional engagement. According to a 2024 Retail Council of Canada report, Gen Z shoppers prefer brands that offer emotional connection, purpose and creativity.
The inaugural Great Canadian Brand Index, which one of us (Eugene Y. Chan) helped develop, found that brands perceived as adventurous, honest and imaginative scored highest in overall public favourability. These are precisely the qualities expressed through fantastical storytelling.
As marketing professors and researchers, we’ve been studying how and why this approach works, and we’ve found it’s grounded in psychology.
The rise of fantasy in branding
While brands have long used aspiration in their marketing, today’s strategies feel noticeably different. The focus has shifted from luxury and exclusivity to escapism itself, and it’s becoming increasingly visible across industries.
Consider Coca-Cola’s “Real Magic” campaign, for instance, which uses AI-generated imagery to create whimsical dreamscapes. Or Apple’s recent “Mother Nature” ad, which reframes a corporate report about the brand’s support of environmental and social issues as a high-concept film starring Octavia Spencer.
Apple’s ‘Mother Nature’ ad.
In London, Gucci’s “Gucci Cosmos” series invites visitors into a surreal world of time travel and design history.
These marketing campaigns are all designed to be emotional experiences for consumers. This means that the emotional reactions consumers have during interactions with a brand, product or service influence their attitudes, memories and future decision-making. These emotions deepen engagement and strengthen brand loyalty.
As consumers continue to feel burned out and overstimulated, fantasy in the form of escapism offers them mental relief. Research shows that immersive experiences — whether through entertainment, retail environments or brand storytelling — can distract from stressors and promote emotional recovery. By providing a temporary break from reality, fantasy-driven marketing taps into a deep psychological need for comfort and cognitive release.
Why it works: The psychology of escapism
To understand why escapist marketing is so effective, it helps to look at the psychology behind it.
One explanation comes from construal level theory, a framework that examines how psychological distance shapes thinking. When something feels far away in time, space or familiarity, we tend to think about it more abstractly.
Surreal or fantastical branding increases this distance, shifting consumers’ focus from immediate utility to emotional resonance, identity and imagination.
While escapist marketing is a broader strategy that aims to help consumers mentally disengage from reality, surreal or fantastical branding is one specific tactic that uses dreamlike, imaginative visuals and narratives to achieve that goal.
Not all escapist marketing is surreal, but surreal branding often serves as a powerful form of escapism by transporting consumers into an alternate world.
A video about the Gucci Cosmos exhibition celebrating over 100 years of the brand’s history.
Our research supports this. In one study, we explored how concave visual design — where ad elements curve inward — draws viewers into the imagery, increases feelings of immersion and enhances message recall and persuasion. This is likely why dreamlike campaigns often use fluid, expansive or distorted imagery.
Another factor is anthropomorphism: the tendency to assign human traits to objects or environments. In our studies on destination branding, we found that people are more emotionally connected to places or products that seem to come alive. These findings help explain why fantastical branding resonates so strongly with consumers, particularly in times of stress.
There’s a fine line between meaningful escapism and empty spectacle. If a brand’s fantasy narrative feels disconnected from its action, or appears to mask unethical practices, consumers are quick to notice.
When consumers perceive a brand as inauthentic — whether through misleading sustainability claims, excessive reliance on AI or insensitive messaging — it can erode trust, trigger public criticism and lead to brand avoidance.
Studies show that such missteps often result in reputational damage and decreased customer loyalty, particularly among values-driven or socially aware consumers
This is where the concept of radical honesty intersects with escapism. The most effective marketing campaigns today blend creativity with transparency. They tell imaginative stories while also acknowledging real-world issues like carbon emissions, labour practices and social justice issues.
Brands like Patagonia — and Peace Collective in Canada that’s working in conjunction with McDonalds — have managed to strike this balance by combining emotionally impactful ad campaigns with commitments to ethical and sustainable practices.
Consumers want experiences that resonate
In times of economic stress and cultural fatigue, Canadians are seeking experiences that resonate with them. When done thoughtfully and grounded in psychology and authenticity, escapist marketing can respond to consumers’ desire to feel something deeper, even via something as brief as a 30-second ad.
So next time you find yourself smiling at a surreal commercial or lingering in a carefully curated retail space, understand that small moment of wonder is a strategic choice, supported by research.
But while immersive storytelling may captivate audiences, consumers are becoming more discerning about what feels authentic. The future of escapist marketing may lie in the blending of digital and physical realities. Tools like augmented and virtual reality can allow brands to create even more immersive fantasies.
Imagine ordering coffee from an AI-generated character or in a branded metaverse cafe. While it may seem futuristic and fun, many consumers feel uneasy when brands rely too heavily on artificial interactions, fearing a loss of authenticity. This tension highlights the growing divide between technological novelty and the human connection consumers still crave.
As technology evolves, so, too, will consumer expectations of emotional, imaginative engagement. The next chapter in fantasy branding may not just offer us an escape, but could redefine how we experience commerce itself.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The American intervention in Iran is being touted as an outstanding success by President Donald Trump. At the very least, Trump’s decision to attack Iran facilitated a ceasefire as it created angst in Gulf states about being caught in the crossfire after Iran symbolically attacked an American air base, Al Udeid, in Qatar.
If Iran preserved its nuclear stockpile of fissile material, it has more incentive to develop a nuclear weapon, despite the damage Israel and the United States did to its production facilities. This is especially true if the damage to facilities like Fordow was less than Trump is proclaiming.
Russian-Iranian relations
While the future of Iran’s nuclear weapons capacity remains unknown, what is clear is that the U.S. and Israel were able to strike at Iran in large part due to Russia’s ongoing war in Ukraine.
In the modern era, relations between Russia and Iran have frequently been tense. Russia and the Soviet Union’s interests in the region have provoked several conflicts, most notably during the 1940s when the Soviets encouraged the formation of the People’s Republic of Azerbaijan on Iranian soil.
The shah of Iran’s close relationship with the U.S. further discouraged a strong relationship between Moscow and Tehran.
The shah’s fall and the collapse of the Soviet Union, however, allowed for a working relationship to develop between Iran and Russia. They’re still rivals but nevertheless work together when it suits their best interests. Russian and Iranian co-operation on the Syrian civil war is an example.
More importantly, Iran’s own success in evading oil sanctions helped Russia do the same, allowing the Russians to maintain their war effort in Ukraine.
The connections between Russia and Iran, however, goes beyond the political and economic.
Drones and other weapons
Iran has played a pivotal role in Russia’s war in Ukraine. One of Ukraine’s initial advantages was in drone technology, including the drone expertise of its allies. The Russian military, which had not fully embraced the implications of drone technology, was at a severe disadvantage.
Iran, at an arms disadvantage against Israel and the U.S., sought to use drones to offset this weakness. The Iranians, in fact, pioneered the use of drones, most notably the Shahed 131 and 136.
Before Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, however, the flow of weapons between Russia and Iran was more one-sided. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Iran has been a vital market for Russian military technology. Russian leaders have viewed the sale of weapons to Iran as both a way of supporting the Russian economy and to counter American interests in the Middle East.
So what’s all this have to do with Ukraine?
Iran left open to bombardment
The most crucial weapon provided by Russia to Iran is arguably the S-300, an advanced surface-to-air missile systems.
Israel’s air dominance and its ability to overcome Iranian air defences in the past meant that the S-300 was a vital piece of technology for Iran. Israeli officials recognized the S-300’s importance to countering their operations when they, for several years, used political pressure to block S-300 sales to Iran.
In October 2024, Israel likely breached the software that operates the S-300, disabling the system’s radar. This breach allowed Israel to eliminate Iran’s S-300s, and left Iran vulnerable to Israeli and American air attacks.
Iran has been unable to acquire replacements for one simple reason: Russia needs the weapon systems in Ukraine. Ukraine has prioritized eliminating Russian air defences like the S-300.
The enduring Ukraine-Russia conflict has served as a bleeding ulcer for the Russian armaments industry. Russian military hardware has been destroyed at such a rate that it’s delayed Russia’s sale of weapons to key markets, including Iran and India.
The situation has caused Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to pivot away from Russian military technology — a key feature in Russian-Indian relations — for domestic arms backed by western technology.
Iran, meantime, has been left open to aerial bombardment by Israel and the U.S.
Rightly or wrongly, the U.S. government identified bombing Iran alongside Israel as being in its national interest. But it’s unlikely American involvement would have been possible without Ukraine draining Russian resources.
The problem is that the current U.S. administration views the world and its events in an isolated manner. But in a globalized world, few events remain in isolation.
The U.S. government may argue that supporting Ukraine is not in American interests, but Ukraine’s ongoing fight against Russia is actually assisting Americans elsewhere — most notably, in Iran.
James Horncastle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
AI literacy equips learners to understand and navigate the pervasive influence of AI in their daily lives.(Shutterstock)
With students’ use of artificial intelligence (AI) tools on the rise in Canada and globally, reports of cheating and unethical behaviors are making headlines.
One recent study indicates that 78 per cent of Canadian students have used generative AI to help with assignments or study tasks. In China, authorities have even shut down AI apps during nationwide exams to prevent cheating.
Students seem unprepared to navigate this new world and educators are unsure how to handle it. This is a problem Canada and other countries can’t afford to ignore.
The support structures and policies to guide students’ and educators’ responsible use of AI are often insufficient in Canadian schools. In a recent study, Canada ranked 44th in AI training and literacy out of 47 countries, and 28th among 30 advanced economies. Despite growing reliance on these technologies at homes and in the classrooms, Canada lacks a unified AI literacy strategy in K-12 education.
Without co-ordinated action, this gap threatens to widen existing inequalities and leave both learners and educators vulnerable. Canadian schools need a national AI literacy strategy that provides a framework for teaching students about AI tools and how to use them responsibly.
“An individual’s ability to clearly explain how AI technologies work and impact society, as well as to use them in an ethical and responsible manner and to effectively communicate and collaborate with them in any setting.”
Acknowledging its importance, scholars and international organizations have been developing AI literacy frameworks. UNESCO has developed AI competency frameworks for students and teachers, highlighting key capabilities they should acquire to navigate AI implications.
More recently, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the European Commission released their joint draft AI Literacy Framework for primary and secondary education. This framework defines AI literacy as the technical knowledge, durable skills and future-ready attitudes required to thrive in a world influenced by AI.
The framework aims to empower learners to engage with, create with, manage and design AI, while critically evaluating its benefits, risks and ethical implications.
AI-literate students are better able to develop an ethical and human-centred mindset as they learn to consider AI’s social and environmental impacts. (Shutterstock)
Why does AI literacy matter?
AI literacy equips learners to understand and navigate the pervasive influence of AI in their daily lives. It fosters critical thinking skills to assess AI outputs for misinformation and bias.
AI literacy also enables students to make safe and informed decisions about when and how to use AI, preventing habits that compromise academic integrity. In addition, student knowledge of AI’s technical foundations demystifies AI, dispelling misconceptions that it is all-knowing, and highlights its capabilities and limitations.
Furthermore, AI-literate students are better able to develop an ethical and human-centred mindset as they learn to consider AI’s social and environmental impacts, including issues of transparency, accountability, privacy and the environmental cost of AI systems.
AI literacy prepares students to collaborate effectively and ethically with AI tools (for example, with writing) and helps them understand how to delegate only certain tasks to AI without cognitive offloading that may be detrimental at various developmental stages.
Finally, AI literacy aims to ensure inclusive access to AI learning environments for all students, regardless of background, status or ability.
Canadian and international landscape
In Canada, some provinces and school boards are moving ahead with AI integration, while others offer very little teacher training and resources to do so.
Some universities and community organizations are also taking the lead in building AI literacy by providing curricula, resources and training to teachers and students.
These scattered efforts, while appreciated, lead to AI learning opportunities that are often ad-hoc or extracurricular. Without national or province-wide requirements, many students — especially in marginalized communities and under-resourced schools — may graduate high school with no exposure to AI concepts at all, worsening the digital divide.
To put Canada’s situation in context, it is useful to compare with other countries that are implementing or proposing national AI education initiatives. As part of its National AI Strategy, Singapore launched a partnership to strengthen students’ AI literacy, building on earlier initiatives that focused on teacher training.
A meaningful AI literacy strategy must begin in the classroom with age-appropriate content. (Shutterstock)
More recently, the United States established an AI framework and a task force aimed at “building essential AI literacy from an early age to maintain a competitive edge in global technology development and prepare students for an AI-driven economy.”
Canada, in comparison to these examples, has strengths in its bottom-up innovation but lacks a guiding vision. Canada needs a co-ordinated strategy that leverages federal-provincial collaboration through a unifying framework, shared resources and a common baseline of AI knowledge that every Canadian student should acquire.
What should this strategy include?
A meaningful AI literacy strategy must begin in the classroom with age-appropriate content. Students can start with the technical foundations and advance to think critically about AI’s limitations, ethical issues and social implications.
It’s important that this content is woven across subjects and presented in ways that reflect the cultural and social contexts of learners.
Equally essential is supporting educators. Teachers need practical, research-informed professional development and teaching toolkits that equip them to guide students through both the opportunities and risks of AI.
To make these efforts sustainable and equitable, a national strategy must also include policy directions, regulations for the tech industry, community outreach programs and intentional opportunities for collaboration between various stakeholders (researchers, policymakers, school boards, teacher education programs and so on).
Whether you think AI is a good or bad thing, the fact is it’s here. This is not a call to incorporate AI tools in schools. It is a call to make Canadian students aware of its abilities and implications. Our kids need to learn about this technology and how to use it responsibly.
Mohammed Estaiteyeh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
In Secrets We Keep, the hidden world of domestic work and abuse is exposed. Here Excel Busano who plays Angel, Cecilia’s au pair and Ruby’s best friend in Denmark speaks with her community on the phone. Tine Harden/Netflix
Moving fluidly between English, Danish and Tagalog, the six-part drama is a nuanced indictment of the lack of moral accountability among the rich. On display are the prejudices and complicity of white women in enabling a culture of toxic masculinity that treats Filipina migrant women as sexualized and disposable commodities.
The story starts with a tearful Ruby Tan — a Filipina au pair who works for the affluent Rasmus (Lars Ranthe) and Katarina (Danica Curcic) — asking for some help with her employers from her neighbour, Cecilie (Marie Bach Hansen).
Cecilie is a successful non-profit manager and mother of two married to a high-profile lawyer. She employs Angel (Excel Busano), a Filipina au pair. Cecilie tells Ruby (Donna Levkovski) she cannot get involved.
The next day, Ruby vanishes without a trace.
The series is propelled by Cecilie’s guilt in refusing to help Ruby. She is shocked at her neighbours’ apparent lack of concern for Ruby’s disappearance.
Cecilie begins to sleuth for clues regarding Ruby’s disappearance and she eventually decides to assist Aicha (Sara Fanta Traore), a racialized policewoman assigned to find the missing au pair. Cecilie discovers a pregnancy kit by a trash bin where she had last seen Ruby. And she soon suspects Ruby’s employer, Rasmus, of raping her.
While the series lacks true suspense due to its predictable story arc peppered with clues about Ruby’s disappearance, it is amply compensated by a sharp critique on the moral decay of modern society, systemic racism and the complicity of women in upholding white masculine privilege.
Warped racist view of the world
Secrets We Keep lays bare the warped world view of rich, white privilege, racism and the sexual fetishism of Asian women.
At a dinner party one night, Rasmus and Katarina do not seem concerned about their missing au pair. Katarina labels Filipina au pairs as whores working in brothels. When discussing Ruby, Katarina says, “she probably ran off to do porn.”
In one uncomfortable scene, Rasmus taunts Cecilia’s husband, Mike (Simon Sears), about his sexual preferences. Mike responds by saying: “I don’t have ‘yellow fever.’” Cecilia sits silently beside Mike.
Katarina also calls Aicha (Sara Fanta Traore), the policewoman, “the little brown one.”
At a formal dinner, Rasmus tells Cecilia: “We stick together. We are from the same world, and we are loyal to each other.”
It led the Philippines to ban the participation of Scandinavian countries in its “informal labour” arrangement in 1998. Though the ban was lifted in 2010, Au Pair Network, an advocacy group, reveals that the program is still riddled with abuse.
At a recent gender studies conference in Stockholm, Ardis Ingvars, a sociologist at the University of Iceland who worked as an au pair for a year in the United States just after she turned 18, recalls her anxiety and apprehension as she moved to Boston.
She said:
“Au pairs hope to be lucky with the family turning out OK. What is difficult to take is the attitude of ‘ownership’ that the children and families display over the au pairs as an unquestioned entitlement.”
Ingvars said asymmetrical power relations embedded within the au pair system reinforce racial and class hierarchies.
This is reflected in Secrets We Keep. Midway during Aicha’s investigation, as she hits roadblock after roadblock, she cries out in frustration: “She’s a fucking nobody in their world.”
Aicha Petersen (Sara Fanta Traore) is the police investigator charged with finding Ruby in ‘Secrets We Keep’. Netflix
Feminized labour exploitation
Economic globalization, neoliberal policies and an increased dependence on the remittance economy fuses with the care gap in the Global North to fuel the feminized care migration from the Global South, many of them Filipino women.
Au pairs are placed with host families who provide free board and meals in return for up to 30 hours a week of housework and child care as they learn the host language and customs. The au pairs are paid “pocket money” of Danish Kroner 5,000 per month (approx $1,000 Canadian) out of which they also pay local taxes.
One scene shows one of Cecilie’s work meetings. A junior staff member expresses surprise that Cecilie has an au pair, labelling it a relic of colonial era racial hierarchies.
Cecilie defends herself, and says the system survives because of the failure of men to keep up their domestic bargain and thus the need for women like her “to outsource care.”
She argues the Filipina au pairs “are dependable” and she is “a much better mother” because of Angel. But Cecilie doesn’t acknowledge her privilege — that to be with her children and have a career is predicated on the exploitative extraction of care from Global South women.
Cecilie’s shock at finding out that Angel has a son whom she left behind in the Philippines is part of her denial. In the end, Cecilie is unable to confront her own complicity and decides to release Angel from their au pair arrangement.
“You know nothing about my world…You are very lucky,” cries Angel in anguish as Cecilie hands her the return ticket and an extra three months’ pay to demonstrate her magnanimity.
Secrets We Keep reveals the brutal reality for Global South au pairs as well as upper-class white women and their entitlements. It indicates that even though these white wealthy women may see mistreatment, they maintain their silence and participate in wilful gendered violence to hold onto that privilege, while maintaining a façade of compassion towards the disposable racial migrant other.
Alors qu’une large part de la France est placée en vigilance canicule ce mercredi 25 juin, se pose la question de l’influence du changement climatique sur le cycle de l’eau, entre modification du régime des pluies et augmentation de la fréquence des événements extrêmes (sécheresses et inondations). Qu’en est-il des eaux souterraines ? Ces dernières, logées dans les profondeurs du sous-sol, ne sont pas à l’abri de ces changements qui touchent en premier lieu l’atmosphère et la surface de la Terre.
Les eaux superficielles et eaux souterraines sont en lien étroit. Ces dernières interagissent avec la surface, dont elles dépendent largement. Ainsi, les nappes d’eau souterraine sont renouvelées d’une part par la recharge naturelle diffuse apportée par la pluie et la fonte de la neige sur les sols, d’autre part par la recharge naturelle indirecte qu’apportent les infiltrations localisées à partir de rivières ou de lacs.
Quel que soit le processus de recharge naturelle concerné, les eaux souterraines sont donc fortement dépendantes du climat.
D’abord de façon directe, à travers les modifications de ce dernier, en fonction du bilan hydrique à la surface de la Terre.
Mais également de façon indirecte, via les changements dans les prélèvements d’eau souterraine nécessaires pour répondre aux différents usages de l’eau impactés par un climat plus chaud (irrigation notamment).
On distingue ainsi des effets directs qui s’imposent à nous, et des effets indirects qui résultent de notre réaction à cette nouvelle situation climatique. Le projet de recherche Explore2 a récemment analysé les conséquences du changement climatique sur la recharge des aquifères en France métropolitaine et a permis un certain nombre de constats.
Évapotranspiration accrue et précipitations plus intenses
Le climat et la couverture végétale contrôlent en grande partie les précipitations et l’évapotranspiration, tandis que le sol et la géologie sous-jacente déterminent si le surplus d’eau peut s’infiltrer vers un aquifère sous-jacent ou s’il va plutôt ruisseler vers une rivière.
USGS, Fourni par l’auteur
Dans le détail, l’évolution future de la recharge dépend au premier chef de la modification de la quantité et du régime des pluies.
Or dans le climat futur, on s’attend à une modification de la répartition des précipitations dans le monde, avec une diminution des précipitations de faible intensité et une augmentation de la fréquence des fortes précipitations, en particulier dans les régions tropicales, où plus de la moitié de la population mondiale devrait vivre d’ici à 2050. Phénomène qui s’accompagnera de sécheresses plus longues et plus fréquentes.
Dans un monde qui se réchauffe, l’évapotranspiration a globalement tendance à augmenter, ce qui réduit la quantité d’eau du sol disponible pour l’infiltration et le ruissellement.
Une recharge des aquifères de plus en plus incertaine
Des précipitations moins fréquentes mais plus abondantes pourraient améliorer la part de la recharge des eaux souterraines dans de nombreux environnements semi-arides à arides. Mais lorsque l’intensité des pluies dépasse la capacité des sols à l’infiltration, on observe une augmentation du ruissellement et des débits des rivières. Ces modifications contrastées des taux de recharge provoquent des changements plus ou moins rapides des niveaux d’eau au sein des nappes phréatiques, selon la vitesse de circulation des eaux souterraines.
Des risques d’inondations par remontée de nappe sont associés aux zones où la recharge augmente tandis que des risques de sécheresse menacent les secteurs où la recharge diminue, avec pour conséquence des modifications importantes des régimes hydrologiques des eaux de surface (rivières, lacs zones humides…). Par exemple, les débits d’étiage des rivières décroissent dans les bassins hydrographiques où le niveau des nappes baisse en réponse à une diminution de la recharge.
Outre les précipitations, la fonte des glaciers et de la neige en montagne contribue souvent aussi de manière importante à la recharge des aquifères montagneux. Son augmentation future sous l’effet du réchauffement est susceptible d’impacter le régime de cette recharge d’une façon qu’il est encore difficile d’analyser.
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Le recul des glaciers augmente dans un premier temps la production d’eau de fonte, jusqu’à atteindre un maximum, connu sous le nom de « pic d’eau », avant de diminuer au fur et à mesure que les glaciers continuent à reculer. Aujourd’hui, environ la moitié des bassins hydrographiques glaciaires du monde auraient dépassé le pic d’eau. Dès lors, une diminution de la recharge des aquifères de montagne est maintenant attendue dans un nombre croissant de bassins glaciaires.
Des impacts sur la qualité des eaux souterraines
On parle beaucoup de volumes d’eau et de taux de recharge, mais le changement climatique altère également la qualité de l’eau souterraine. Les épisodes de pluie plus intenses et la recharge qui en découle sont susceptibles de mobiliser par lessivage des contaminants qui étaient précédemment stockés dans les sols.
D’un autre côté, le réchauffement peut conduire à l’augmentation des concentrations en solutés comme les chlorures, nitrates ou l’arsenic dans les sols et les eaux souterraines superficielles, en lien avec une augmentation de l’évapotranspiration, et une diminution de l’infiltration et donc une dilution moindre.
Enfin, l’augmentation de la température de l’eau souterraine, induite par le réchauffement global et localement par les îlots de chaleur urbains, modifie quant à elle la solubilité et la concentration dans l’eau de certains contaminants. Ces impacts sont moins souvent observés, mais bien réels, notamment dans le pourtour méditerranéen.
En outre, l’augmentation du niveau de la mer induit un risque de salinisation des sols et des aquifères côtiers dans le monde. Cette intrusion saline dépend de nombreux facteurs tels que la géologie côtière, la topographie et surtout les niveaux d’eau dans les nappes. Elle peut être particulièrement sévère dans les zones basses telles que les deltas, les îles ou encore les atolls où il existe des lentilles d’eau douce particulièrement sensibles au changement climatique.
Voilà pour les impacts directs. Mais les scientifiques estiment que l’impact du changement climatique sur les eaux souterraines peut être localement plus important au travers d’effets indirects, liés aux effets du changement climatique.
La hausse des prélèvements, un effet indirect
Le changement climatique risque en effet de provoquer une augmentation des prélèvements dans les aquifères par les agriculteurs pour faire face à l’augmentation de l’évapotranspiration liée au réchauffement et à la variabilité et diminution de l’humidité dans les sols ou de l’eau disponible en surface.
L’augmentation des pompages, pour l’irrigation notamment, induit une baisse chronique des niveaux d’eau qui menace la gestion durable des nappes, les écoulements d’eau vers les hydrosystèmes voisins ou les écosystèmes de surface dépendant des eaux souterraines (zones humides).
Cette pression accrue est susceptible de modifier considérablement le cycle de l’eau, avec de forts contrastes entre :
l’épuisement des eaux souterraines dans les régions où l’irrigation est principalement alimentée par des eaux souterraines ;
la montée du niveau des nappes résultant de la recharge par les flux d’excédent d’irrigation alimentée par les eaux de surface et pouvant conduire à un engorgement et à une salinisation des sols ;
et les modifications des climats locaux résultant de l’évapotranspiration accrue des terres irriguées.
Conséquences sur la « recharge potentielle » en France
L’incidence du changement climatique sur le taux de recharge des nappes aquifères en France métropolitaine a été récemment analysé par la communauté scientifique dans le cadre du projet Explore2.
Grâce à la mise en cascade de modèles climatiques avec des modèles hydrologiques, les chercheurs ont simulé les modifications du taux de recharge potentielle des nappes, selon deux scénarios d’évolution des émissions de gaz à effet de serre dans l’atmosphère (émissions moyennes ou fortes).
La recharge potentielle est définie comme la part des précipitations efficaces susceptible de s’infiltrer depuis la surface et de recharger les aquifères sous-jacents, dans la mesure où ils possèdent les caractéristiques hydrodynamiques favorables. Elle est qualifiée de potentielle car son arrivée dans les aquifères ne peut être connue a priori et une partie de ce flux peut revenir vers les cours d’eau, en aval de sa zone d’infiltration.
Des régions affectées différemment
D’après ces travaux, la recharge potentielle annuelle pourrait augmenter dès le milieu du siècle entre + 10 % et + 30 % dans le nord et le nord-est de la France. Il resterait globalement stable sur le reste du pays – et ce pour les deux scénarios étudiés.
De plus, le cumul de recharge pendant l’hiver augmenterait pour presque toute la France, hormis une bande sud et une partie de la Bretagne. Dans un scénario de fortes émissions, la recharge potentielle annuelle baisserait sur le sud-ouest, le sud-est et la Corse en fin de siècle, de -10 à -30 %.
La période à laquelle la recharge potentielle est à son maximum serait par ailleurs avancée d’un mois du printemps vers l’hiver sur les chaînes alpines et pyrénéennes. En raison de la hausse des températures, les précipitations tomberaient en effet davantage sous forme de pluie, qui s’infiltre rapidement, et moins sous forme de neige, qui stocke l’eau jusqu’à la période de fonte.
Dans le cas du scénario de fortes émissions, le maximum de recharge de l’automne serait décalé d’un mois vers l’hiver sur le pourtour méditerranéen. Pour le reste du pays, aucune modification notable n’a été observée dans les projections étudiées.
BRGM, projet Explore2, Fourni par l’auteur
Des résultats rassurants mais incomplets
Ces résultats semblent à première vue rassurants, du moins dans le nord du pays. Ils ne prennent toutefois en compte que les impacts directs du changement climatique sur la recharge, liés à l’infiltration potentielle des précipitations.
Or, pour un grand nombre d’aquifères, l’infiltration de l’eau des cours d’eau constitue une part importante de la recharge. L’évolution future des débits des cours d’eau, qui à l’échelle annuelle, devraient diminuer dans la moitié sud du territoire hexagonal français, doit donc également être prise en compte.
De plus, les impacts indirects doivent également être intégrés à l’analyse pour élaborer les politiques publiques futures visant à assurer une gestion durable des nappes aquifères à l’échelle de notre pays : comme une éventuelle hausse de prélèvements pour faire face à l’augmentation de l’évapotranspiration et les modifications dans l’occupation des sols pour s’adapter au climat changeant.
Jean-Christophe Maréchal a reçu des financements de ANR et AERMC
Jean-Pierre Vergnes a reçu des financements de l’ANR et du ministère de la transition écologique.
Sandra Lanini et Yvan Caballero ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur poste universitaire.
Source: The Conversation – Indonesia – By Sébastien Ibanez, Maître de conférences en biologie, Université Savoie Mont Blanc (USMB), Université Savoie Mont Blanc
Dans les montagnes dominant La Grave, l’androsace du Dauphiné, espèce déjà en danger, est menacée par l’extension d’un téléphérique qui doit s’implanter dans son milieu.Sébastien Lavergne/CNRS, Fourni par l’auteur
Comment la recherche et les scientifiques peuvent-ils intervenir dans le débat public, surtout lorsqu’il s’agit de questionner des choix de société ? Dans les mouvements écologistes, cet engagement peut prendre plusieurs formes, entre expert en retrait et militant engagé. L’exemple du projet d’extension du téléphérique de La Grave (Hautes-Alpes), au pied du massif de la Meije, illustre bien cette difficulté. Ce chantier menace notamment une plante protégée, ce qui a contribué à l’installation de la plus haute ZAD d’Europe.
Construit en 1976 et 1977, le téléphérique relie le village de La Grave (Hautes-Alpes) à 1 400 mètres et le glacier de la Girose à 3 200 mètres. Lors de la reprise de la gestion du téléphérique par la Société d’aménagement touristique de l’Alpe d’Huez (Sata) en 2017, il est prévu d’étendre le téléphérique par un troisième tronçon atteignant le Dôme de la Lauze à plus de 3 500 mètres, pour remplacer l’usage d’un téléski désormais obsolète. Cela déclenche une controverse à différentes échelles, locale et nationale, portant sur la pertinence économique, sociale et environnementale du projet.
Le téléphérique de La Grave (Hautes-Alpes). Michel Boutin, Fourni par l’auteur
Étant écologue, je vais concentrer l’analyse sur les manières dont ma discipline peut participer à la controverse.
Une espèce de fleur endémique du massif découverte en 2021
On sait depuis Horace Bénédict de Saussure, naturaliste du XVIIIe siècle, que ces plantes existent, mais elles étaient alors confondues avec d’autres auxquelles elles ressemblent. L’une d’elles, l’androsace du Dauphiné, est endémique du massif des Écrins et d’autres massifs avoisinants. On la prenait auparavant pour l’une de ses cousines, l’androsace pubescente, qui bénéficie d’une protection nationale depuis 1982.
Il est encore trop tôt pour que le statut de protection de l’androsace du Dauphiné soit défini par la loi. En toute logique, elle devrait hériter de la protection nationale dont bénéficie l’androsace pubescente, puisque son aire de répartition est encore plus réduite. Elle occupe notamment un petit rognon rocheux émergeant du glacier de la Girose, sur lequel l’un des piliers du téléphérique doit être implanté.
À cet endroit, l’androsace du Dauphiné n’a pas été détectée par le bureau chargé de l’étude d’impact, mais elle a été repérée, en 2022, par un guide de haute montagne local. Comme cela n’a pas convaincu le commissaire chargé de l’enquête publique, une équipe de chercheurs accompagnée par une agente assermentée de l’Office français de la biodiversité (OFB) a confirmé les premières observations, en 2023.
Un coussin d’androsace du Dauphiné poussant sur le rognon du glacier de la Girose. Sébastien Lavergne/CNRS, Fourni par l’auteur
De nombreuses autres espèces d’androsaces poussent à plus faible altitude et possèdent une rosette de feuilles surmontée d’une tige dressée portant des fleurs. Celles de haute montagne, comme l’androsace du Dauphiné, ont un port compact rappelant un coussin. Les petites fleurs blanches à gorge jaune dépassent à peine des feuilles duveteuses. Dans cet environnement très difficile, leur croissance est très lente. Les plantes formant des coussins peuvent avoir plusieurs dizaines d’années, voire bien plus. Bien que très discrètes, elles forment les forêts des glaciers.
Peu de protections accordées pendant le chantier
Les travaux prévus présentent-ils un risque pour l’androsace ?
Le préfet des Hautes-Alpes a jugé que ce n’était pas le cas, en refusant d’enjoindre à la Sata de déposer une demande de dérogation en vue de la destruction d’une espèce protégée, comme cela est prévu par l’article L411-2 du Code de l’environnement. Il considère donc qu’installer quelques dispositifs de protection autour des individus existants serait assez. En réalité, rien ne garantit que cela suffise, car plusieurs de ces plantes poussent à moins de 15 mètres en contrebas de l’emplacement du pylône, comme l’indique le rapport d’expertise, dans des fissures rocheuses dont l’alimentation en eau risque d’être irrémédiablement perturbée.
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Un pied d’androsace entre des rochers près du glacier. Angela Bolis, Fourni par l’auteur
On peut donc difficilement quantifier la probabilité que la population d’androsaces présente sur le rognon de la Girose s’éteigne à cause des travaux. On peut malgré tout affirmer que la survie de la population sera très probablement menacée par les travaux, même si cette conclusion n’a pas le même degré de certitude que l’observation de la présence de l’espèce.
Quelle posture pour le scientifique ?
Comment se positionner sur cette question en tant que scientifique ?
Une première solution serait de céder à la double injonction de neutralité (ne pas exprimer ses opinions) et d’objectivité (se baser uniquement sur des faits), pour se limiter au signalement de la présence de l’espèce. Mais cette négation aveugle de l’engagement laisse aux autorités, qui ne sont bien sûr ni neutres ni objectives, le soin de décider comment protéger l’androsace. La neutralité devient ainsi une illusion qui favorise l’action des forces dominantes.
Une deuxième option diamétralement opposée serait d’utiliser la qualité de scientifique pour asseoir son autorité : l’androsace étant protégée et menacée par les travaux, il faut abandonner le projet, point. Cet argument technocratique paraît surprenant dans ce contexte, mais c’est une pratique courante dans la sphère économique lorsque des experts présentent des choix de société comme inévitables, avec pour grave conséquence d’évacuer le débat politique. Dans le cas de la Girose, les enjeux environnementaux s’entremêlent avec les choix portant sur le modèle de développement touristique. La controverse ne peut être résolue qu’au moyen d’une réflexion associant tous les acteurs.
Une troisième voie consisterait à distinguer deux modes d’intervention, l’un en tant que scientifique et l’autre en tant que militant, de manière à « maximiser l’objectivité et minimiser la neutralité ». Dix-huit scientifiques formant le collectif Rimaye, dont je fais partie, ont publié en 2024 un ouvrage intitulé Glacier de la Girose, versant sensible, qui mêle les savoirs et les émotions liées à ce territoire de montagne. Les contributions de sciences humaines interrogent les trajectoires passées et à venir pour le territoire, tandis que les sciences de la Terre et de la vie invitent le lecteur autant à découvrir qu’à aimer les roches, les glaces et les êtres qui peuplent la haute montagne.
Une science amorale et apolitique ?
Partant du constat que la seule description scientifique ne suffit pas, plusieurs contributions revendiquent une approche sensible. La recherche permet aussi d’aimer les plantes en coussins et les minuscules écosystèmes qu’elles hébergent. Les sciences de la nature n’ont pas nécessairement une application technique immédiate au service d’un projet de domination. Elles peuvent encourager la protection de l’environnement par le biais de l’attachement aux objets de connaissance et se révéler porteuses, comme les sciences humaines, d’un projet émancipateur où tous les êtres vivants, et même les êtres non vivants comme les glaciers, seraient libres de toute destruction et d’exploitation.
Cependant, cette troisième voie suppose qu’il est possible d’isoler la démarche scientifique de valeurs morales ou politiques. Certes, les valeurs peuvent influencer les scientifiques avant le processus de recherche (lors du choix de l’androsace comme objet d’étude), pendant (en évitant d’abîmer les plantes étudiées) et après (en déterminant le message accompagnant la diffusion des résultats). Malgré tout, selon cette approche, le processus de la recherche reste généralement imperméable aux valeurs.
Cet idéal est aujourd’hui largement contesté en philosophie des sciences, ce qui ouvre le champ à une quatrième voie venant compléter la précédente. Concentrons-nous ici sur un seul argument : tirer une conclusion scientifique nécessite de faire un choix qui, en l’absence de certitude absolue, devient sensible aux valeurs.
Choisir à quelle erreur s’exposer
Dans le cas de l’androsace, il faut décider si l’implantation du pylône met ou pas la population en danger.
On peut distinguer deux manières de se tromper : soit on détecte un danger inexistant, soit on ne parvient pas à discerner un véritable danger. La porte d’entrée des valeurs devient apparente. Du point de vue de la Sata, il faudrait éviter la première erreur, tandis que pour les amoureux de l’androsace, c’est la seconde qui pose problème. Idéalement, on aimerait minimiser les taux de ces deux erreurs, mais un résultat bientôt centenaire en statistiques nous apprend que l’un augmente lorsque l’autre diminue. Un certain risque d’erreur peut ainsi paraître plus ou moins acceptable en fonction de nos valeurs.
Si objectivité et neutralité sont illusoires, il serait préférable de rendre apparente l’intrication entre valeurs et recherche scientifique afin de distinguer les influences illégitimes, comme la promotion d’intérêts personnels ou marchands, de celles orientées vers la protection de biens communs. D’autant plus que les enjeux autour du téléphérique dépassent largement le sort de l’androsace, mais concernent aussi la vie économique de la vallée.
Le téléski du glacier de la Girose, devenu obsolète à cause de la baisse du niveau du glacier. Michel Boutin, Fourni par l’auteur
Pour trancher la question de l’aménagement de la haute montagne, il devrait exister un espace de discussion regroupant habitantes et habitants des vallées, pratiquants de la montagne et scientifiques. Des initiatives ont été prises dans ce sens, que ce soit à Bourg-Saint-Maurice (Savoie), à Grenoble (Isère), au jardin alpin du Lautaret (Hautes-Alpes) ou à La Grave.
Pour que ces rencontres soient suivies d’effet, il faut qu’elles puissent nourrir les mobilisations, comme tente de le faire le collectif Les Naturalistes des terres, ou qu’elles se traduisent dans les politiques publiques. Cependant, la récente proposition de loi Duplomb sur l’agriculture illustre que les alertes des scientifiques sont souvent ignorées.
En attendant, les travaux du téléphérique pourraient reprendre cette année à la Girose, sans que la question de la protection des glaciers et des écosystèmes qui les entourent ait trouvé de réponse.
Sébastien Ibanez a reçu des financements de l’Observatoire des Sciences de l’Univers de Grenoble (OSUG).
