The trend for naming summers has become something of a cultural phenomenon. Think for example of 2019, which was branded a “hot girl summer”, inspired by rapper Megan Thee Stallion’s song.
In 2021 there was the much-ridiculed “white boy summer” (named after a song of the same name by Tom Hanks’s son, Chet). Then 2022 was “feral girl summer” and 2024, of course, was a “brat summer”, after Charli XCX’s cultural phenomenon album Brat.
And this summer? Well, with the likes of Oasis, Pulp, Supergrass, Suede, Shed Seven and Cast all playing UK dates between June and August, it’s “Britpop summer”, of course. The question is, though, whether these names are actually (and accurately) representing the zeitgeist, or if they are just the result of savvy marketing strategies.
Such things may now be occurring more frequently, but they’re nothing new. The year 1967 was famously coined “the summer of love”, a moniker supposedly invented by the Californian local government to put a positive spin on the druggy, hairy, hippy gatherings taking place across the state.
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Such un-psychedelic appetites also spilled over into mainstream music. Although it’s now the UK’s bestselling album ever, in 1967, The Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was only the sixth-biggest album of the year in terms of sales. It was bested by the very suitably non-flower-power Herb Alpert, The Monkees and The Sound of Music soundtrack.
The same year, 1967, also saw the “best double-A side ever released”, The Beatles’ Penny Lane and Strawberry Fields Forever. It was kept off the number one spot by Engelbert Humperdinck’s Please Release Me.
Inside the so-called ‘second summer of love’.
It seems, then, that for most of the British public, it was less a “summer of love” and more a “summer of Humperdinck”. Fast-forward five decades, and we see the same kinds of things happening. The year 2019 was a “hot girl summer”, Megan Thee Stallion’s song only peaked at 40 in the UK singles charts and her gigs sold poorly.
Like our “summer of Humperdinck”, were such things based on popularity, we may have expected a “Sheeran summer”, with Ed Sheeran’s duet with Justin Bieber, I Don’t Care, dominating the charts and airwaves.
Pulp performed a secret set at Glastonbury 2025 to huge crowds.
We may all have become more cynical in the intervening years, but in the midst of another heatwave, with Pulp at Glastonbury, and the Gallaghers reunited, it does feel like there’s something in the air again.
Indeed, standing among tens of thousands of fellow music fans in the sweltering heat watching Jarvis Cocker strutting his gangly stuff, if I ignored the grey in his beard, the iPhones in the crowd, and the aching in my legs, it could have been the nineties all over again.
Britpop summer? I’m all for it. And maybe this will be one time that the name really does represent the nation’s mood.
Glenn Fosbraey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The greenhouse effect was discovered more than 150 years ago and the first scientific paper linking carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere with climate change was published in 1896.
But it wasn’t until the 1950s that scientists could definitively detect the effect of human activities on the Earth’s atmosphere.
In 1956, United States scientist Charles Keeling chose Hawaii’s Mauna Loa volcano for the site of a new atmospheric measuring station. It was ideal, located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and at high altitude away from the confounding influence of population centres.
Data collected by Mauna Loa from 1958 onward let us clearly see the evidence of climate change for the first time. The station samples the air and measures global CO₂ levels. Charles Keeling and his successors used this data to produce the famous Keeling curve – a graph showing carbon dioxide levels increasing year after year.
But this precious record is in peril. US President Donald Trump has decided to defund the observatory recording the data, as well as the widespread US greenhouse gas monitoring network and other climate measuring sites.
We can’t solve the existential problem of climate change if we can’t track the changes. Losing Mauna Loa would be a huge loss to climate science. If it shuts, other observatories such as Australia’s Kennaook/Cape Grim will become even more vital.
The first year of measurements at Mauna Loa revealed something incredible. For the first time, the clear annual cycle in atmospheric CO₂ was visible. As plants grow in summer, they absorb CO₂ and draw it out of the atmosphere. As they die and decay in winter, the CO₂ returns to the atmosphere. It’s like Earth is breathing.
Most land on Earth is in the Northern Hemisphere, which means this cycle is largely influenced by the northern summer and winter.
The annual cycle of carbon dioxide is largely due to plant growth and decay in the northern hemisphere.
It only took a few years of measurements before an even more profound pattern emerged.
Year on year, CO₂ levels in the atmosphere were relentlessly rising. The natural in-out cycle continued, but against a steady increase.
Scientists would later figure out that the ocean and land together were absorbing almost half of the CO₂ produced by humans. But the rest was building up in the atmosphere.
Crucially, isotopic measurements meant scientists could be crystal clear about the origin of the extra carbon dioxide. It was coming from humans, largely through burning fossil fuels.
Mauna Loa has now been collecting data for more than 65 years. The resulting Keeling curve graph is the most iconic demonstration of how human activities are collectively affecting the planet.
When the last of the Baby Boomer generation were being born in the 1960s, CO₂ levels were around 320 parts per million. Now they’re over 420 ppm. That’s a level unseen for at least three million years. The rate of increase far exceeds any natural change in the past 50 million years.
The reason carbon dioxide is so important is that this molecule has special properties. Its ability to trap heat alongside other greenhouse gases means Earth isn’t a frozen rock. If there were no greenhouse gases, Earth would have an average temperature of -18°C, rather than the balmy 14°C under which human civilisation emerged.
The greenhouse effect is essential to life. But if there are too many gases, the planet becomes dangerously hot. That’s what’s happening now – a very sharp increase in gases exceptionally good at trapping heat even at low concentrations.
Greenhouse gases are the reason Earth isn’t an icebox. But the rate humans are emitting them is leading to very rapid changes. Reid Wiseman/NASA, CC BY-NC-ND
Keeping our eyes open
It’s not enough to know CO₂ is climbing. Monitoring is essential. That’s because as the planet warms, both the ocean and the land are expected to take up less and less of humanity’s emissions, letting still more carbon accumulate in the air.
Continuous, high-precision monitoring is the only way to spot if and when that happens.
This monitoring provides the vital means to verify whether new climate policies are genuinely influencing the atmospheric CO₂ curve rather than just being touted as effective. Monitoring will also be vital to capture the moment many have been working towards when government policies and new technologies finally slow and eventually stop the increase in CO₂.
The US administration’s plans to defund key climate monitoring systems and roll back green energy initiatives presents a global challenge.
Without these systems, it will be harder to forecast the weather and give seasonal updates. It will also be harder to forecast dangerous extreme weather events.
Scientists in the US and globally have sounded the alarm about what the closure would do to science. This is understandable. Stopping data climate collection is like breaking a thermometer because you don’t like knowing you’ve got a fever.
If the US follows through, other countries will need to carefully reconsider their commitments to gathering and sharing climate data.
Australia has a long record of direct atmospheric CO₂ measurement, which began in 1976 at the Kennaook/Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station in north-west Tasmania. This and other climate observations will only become more valuable if Mauna Loa is lost.
It remains to be seen how Australia’s leaders respond to the US retreat from climate monitoring. Ideally, Australia would not only maintain but strategically expand its monitoring systems of atmosphere, land and oceans.
Alex Sen Gupta receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
Katrin Meissner receives funding from the Minderoo Foundation and has received funding from the Australian Research Council in the past.
Timothy Raupach receives funding from QBE Insurance, Guy Carpenter, and the Australian Research Council.
Now imagine living that kind of isolation all the time.
For millions of Americans with serious mental health conditions, being unable to engage in meaningful activities is not just a temporary crisis – it’s daily life.
Community inclusion refers to everyone’s right to participate in meaningful social roles. This includes working, going to school, practicing one’s faith or simply connecting with others in shared activities.
Yet, for the estimated 15.4 million U.S. adults living with significant mental health conditions – about 6% of the adult population – community inclusion is far from guaranteed. Compared with the general population, they are far less likely to be involved in social activities that bring purpose and connection, as well as health benefits.
I am a psychologist who has worked in inpatient and outpatient psychiatric settings, and I directed a federally funded research and training center at Temple University in Philadelphia for more than 20 years that focuses on independent living and participation of people with serious mental illnesses.
My colleagues and I have conducted research which demonstrates that people with such conditions want to participate in their community just like everyone else. We also found that they can do so – with proper supports like medications, therapy, rehabilitation services and communities making reasonable accommodations for them. And furthermore, they should: Community inclusion is good for their health.
Benefits of community life
Community involvement gets people with mental illness out of bed and out of the house. It encourages movement and activity, which enhances physical health.
Some people may assume that people with severe mental illnesses are restricted from active participation in their communities solely due to the mental health symptoms themselves.
For example, they might think that cognitive issues related to schizophrenia make it too difficult for people to work or go to school; or that mania, anxiety and depression prevent them from having good relationships with others.
But environment also plays a major role.
The social model of disability suggests that people are not disabled by their diagnosis. Instead, they experience a disability through limitations in their communities because of physical, structural and social barriers.
For example, someone with anxiety or depression may be penalized in a college class that deducts points for students who do not speak up.
A person with a disability that causes fluctuating moods or low energy might not succeed in a rigid nine-to-five job without accommodations.
And a churchgoer who talks to themselves or has to walk around during services because their medications make them jittery – a condition called akathisia – or who is known to have been diagnosed with schizophrenia might be asked to leave because their presence makes others uncomfortable.
The result is that people are unable to participate not simply because of an impairment, but because of an environment that does not accommodate or appreciate their unique attributes.
Helping people with mental illness rejoin community life
Some programs here in Pennsylvania are working to change that.
Education Plus helps Philadelphia residents with mental health conditions complete college and financial aid application forms, obtain school accommodations for their disability, and develop good study habits or learn to ask for help from their instructors.
Pathways to Housing PA offers transitional job opportunities to people who have been homeless, and organizes picnics, trips to Phillies baseball games and other fun activities that create a sense of community belonging.
A voter access initiative at an inpatient psychiatric facility in Pennsylvania helps patients check their voter registration status, register to vote and apply for mail-in ballots.
The nonprofit Compeer in suburban Philadelphia connects community volunteers to people with mental illnesses to engage in mutual leisure or educational interests. This oftentimes leads to long-term friendships.
And a current study I am conducting is examining ways to support faith communities in Montgomery County to be more welcoming and embracing of individuals with mental illnesses.
Family members, friends and mental health professionals can simply ask people with mental illnesses about their interests – whether it’s employment, going to school, dating or making new friends – and then encourage and support them in pursuing those interests.
Creating inclusive communities means not just offering services to people with serious mental illness, but also changing negative beliefs and behaviors toward them. This includes embracing people who might express emotions differently, require flexibility or simply behave in ways we’re not used to.
For example, say you’re in a coffee shop and encounter a person who is muttering to themselves and may not have bathed in a few days. Maybe you make eye contact, smile and say hello. Certainly reconsider complaining.
It takes empathy, open-mindedness and patience to create a community that welcomes people with mental illness and increases the likelihood that they can participate in society like everyone else.
Mark Salzer receives funding from the National Institute on Disabilities, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research. He previously served on the Board of Directors for Pathways to Housing PA and works closely with Horizon House, including in the development of the Education Plus program mentioned in the article.
Source: The Conversation – France in French (3) – By Morgane Dujmovic, Chargée de recherche CNRS, Géographe et politiste spécialiste des frontières et migrations, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)
À l’approche des côtes italiennes, la perspective d’une nouvelle vie en Europe se fait plus concrète. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Cet article est le quatrième et dernier épisode d’une série en quatre volets consacrée à un travail de recherche mené à bord de l’Ocean Viking, navire de sauvetage de l’ONG SOS Méditerranée. Morgane Dujmovic, géographe et politiste, a recueilli les récits de 110 personnes secourues en Méditerranée centrale pour mieux comprendre leur parcours. Le retour à terre est au cœur de ce dernier épisode.
Si l’étude à bord de l’Ocean Viking (OV) met en lumière les opérations de sauvetage civil, par l’une des désormais nombreuses ONG présentes en Méditerranée centrale, il faut aussi souligner l’importance des traversées autonomes, comme des sauvetages et actes de solidarité en mer entre personnes exilées elles-mêmes.
Ellie, membre de l’équipe SAR (Search and Rescue) de SOS Méditerranée, a retracé un sauvetage au cours duquel deux embarcations en détresse se sont prêté assistance :
« Il y a des personnes dont je me souviens très bien. Elles étaient parties dans le corridor tunisien, en bateau en fibre de verre et ont croisé un autre bateau, en bois, qui était à la dérive. Quand on est arrivés, on avait ce bateau en fibre de verre qui remorquait un bateau en bois, chacun en détresse, avec 30 ou 40 personnes dessus. C’était un sauvetage d’un sauvetage. C’était assez incroyable, cette solidarité parmi les personnes en mer. »
Reconstitution d’un sauvetage entre embarcations en détresse par Ellie, sauveteuse en mer. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Les équipages d’ONG sont ainsi à la recherche d’un équilibre entre, d’une part, le maintien de cette autonomie propre aux personnes exilées et, d’autre part, les contraintes liées à la gestion quotidienne des populations à bord dans des conditions parfois extrêmes (une gestion souvent qualifiée de crowd control, c’est-à-dire de «contrôle des foules»).
L’étude sur l’OV a justement mis en lumière les attentes des personnes rescapées, dans la phase qui suit le sauvetage, dite de post-rescue. Les opinions exprimées ont ainsi permis de formuler plusieurs recommandations opérationnelles, centrées sur les besoins de ces personnes durant les journées de navigation jusqu’à un port sûr en Europe.
L’un des résultats les plus marquants a trait au besoin de communication directe avec les proches, en particulier pour leur annoncer que la traversée n’a pas eu d’issue fatale. Le soutien et les informations reçues de la famille et des amis font d’ailleurs partie des principales ressources aux différentes étapes de la migration (mentionnées par près de 60 % des personnes à l’enquête).
Cependant, il n’est pas rare que les personnes rescapées perdent leur téléphone au cours de la traversée, et quand ce n’est pas le cas, les capacités de connexion restent limitées en pleine mer.
Impacts psychiques et physiques
L’étude laisse aussi apparaître les impacts physiques et psychiques des violences en Libye, affectant la capacité à accomplir des besoins primaires. Les personnes participantes ont notamment mentionné des difficultés à s’alimenter, à trouver le repos et le répit :
« En prison, nous ne mangions qu’une fois par jour, nous ne pouvions nous laver qu’une fois par mois. » ; « Mon dos est très douloureux et je ne peux pas dormir. » ; « Mon esprit et trop stressé et je ne peux pas le contrôler. »
Ces traces sont aussi visibles sur les innombrables graffitis laissés sur les murs de l’Ocean Viking au fil des années.
Dans cet enchaînement de frontières violentes, le séjour à bord du navire de sauvetage relève d’une respiration, si l’on se fie aux commentaires libres proposés à l’issue du questionnaire :
« Nous sommes considérés comme vos frères ici, ça change tellement de la Libye ! » ; « Je n’ai pas grand-chose à dire, mais je n’oublierai jamais ce qu’il s’est passé ici. »
Au milieu de la mer, quand le nombre de personnes à bord le permet, on assiste parfois à des scènes d’intimité retrouvée ou, à l’inverse, de liesse collective, notamment quand est confirmée l’annonce d’un port attribué par l’Italie.
Explosion de joie à bord de l’OV après l’annonce d’un port de débarquement en Italie. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Quant aux ateliers cartographiques et à l’étude par questionnaire que j’ai menés, les retours de participants suggèrent qu’ils ont pu participer à une forme de pouvoir d’agir, ou du moins, de pouvoir-réfléchir et de pouvoir-raconter :
« C’est la première fois depuis très longtemps que quelqu’un me demande ce que je pense et quelles sont mes opinions sur les choses. »
«Sur le terrain : Quand les cartes racontent l’exil», avec Morgane Dujmovic, The Conversation France, 2025.
Le retour à la terre
Une forme de reprise de pouvoir sur l’action est perceptible à mesure que s’approche la perspective du débarquement et d’une nouvelle vie en Europe.
Alors que nous naviguons vers les côtes italiennes, les cartographies qui sont affichées sur le mapping collectif illustrent des rêves et imaginaires de plus en plus concrets. Elles font écho aux projets d’installation confiés dans le questionnaire :
« J’espère avoir rapidement un titre de séjour en Allemagne. » ; « Je souhaite rembourser l’argent que j’ai emprunté à mes propriétaires, apprendre rapidement la langue, voir ma famille en état de sécurité et de santé. »
Mapping collectif sur le pont de l’OV. Alisha Vaya/SOS Méditerranée, Fourni par l’auteur
On peut imaginer l’émotion que représente le premier pied posé dans un port européen, pour celles et ceux qui y parviennent enfin. On imagine moins, en revanche, que cette étape puisse relever d’une nouvelle forme de violence. À Ancône, Koné se remémore l’impression laissée par l’important dispositif déployé :
« Quand j’ai débarqué du bateau, j’ai vu tellement de sirènes que j’ai pensé : “Il n’y a que des ambulances, en Italie ?” »
Le comité d’accueil réservé aux personnes débarquées en Italie est en fait composé des autorités nationales de sécurité (police et gendarmerie), des services sanitaires italiens, de la Croix-Rouge italienne et de membres de Frontex, l’agence européenne de garde-frontières et de garde-côtes, dont l’intervention est cadrée autour d’une question : « Qui conduisait le bateau parti de Libye ? »
Autrement dit : « Qui pourrait être inquiété pour avoir facilité l’entrée irrégulière sur le territoire européen ? »
Au niveau des conventions internationales SAR, le sauvetage prend fin dès lors que les personnes sont débarquées dans un lieu sûr de débarquement ou POS (Place of Safety). Pour les équipages de SOS Méditerranée, il est d’usage de considérer que le travail s’arrête là, même si la relation humaine se poursuit parfois.
D’ailleurs, le débarquement est assez vite suivi par les nombreuses formalités administratives et les interrogatoires auxquels les ONG de sauvetage doivent se soumettre pour ne pas courir le risque de voir leur bateau détenu et, par conséquent, d’être dans l’incapacité de retourner en zone d’opérations.
À l’issue de plusieurs jours de navigation collective, les au revoir ont quelque chose de joyeux, mais aussi d’anxieux, car nous savons que s’ouvre pour chacune de ces personnes un nouveau parcours de combats.
À peine le débarquement effectué vient le temps des formalités administratives et des interrogatoires. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Dans cet instant de grâce, où les rêves touchent terre, vient à mon esprit la force des silences dans la bande dessinée, le Retour à la terre, rendus graphiquement par Manu Larcenet.
Le silence de la mer qui a englouti tant de corps.
Le silence concentré des équipes de sauvetage, quand les bateaux semi-rigides foncent vers les embarcations en détresse.
Le silence stupéfait, à bord des mêmes semi-rigides ramenant au bateau-mère des personnes encore sonnées d’avoir échappé au naufrage.
Le silence épuisé de celles et ceux qui reprennent des forces ; l’évidence du silence à l’écoute des récits sur le pont de l’OV.
Le silence timide quand les côtes italiennes se dévoilent pour la première fois.
Le silence des institutions européennes qui taisent et entravent les combats pour la vie en mer – et pour la vie sur terre, en soutenant les interceptions et retours forcés vers la Libye.
Et, enfin, mon silence, face au constat de ma propre impuissance, vis-à-vis des personnes exilées que j’ai rencontrées en mer :
« Je sais que tu écris, c’est bien, les gens vont le voir. Mais l’histoire va continuer. »
Le sillage de l’Ocean Viking. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Remerciements : De sincères remerciements sont adressés aux personnes qui ont bien voulu participer à cette étude embarquée et partager leurs récits, notamment Koné et Shakir, ainsi qu’à l’ensemble des équipes en mer et sur terre qui ont soutenu cette recherche au long cours, en particulier Carla Melki et Amine Boudani.
Certains prénoms réels ont été conservés et d’autres modifiés, à la préférence des personnes concernées.
Morgane Dujmovic a débuté cette recherche en tant que chercheuse indépendante, elle est aujourd’hui chargée de recherche au CNRS.
Morgane Dujmovic ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.
In the build-up to the 2024 election, Keir Starmer worked hard to show that his party could run Britain better than the Tories. He promised his government would offer stability after years of chaos – but also change. He stood for honesty but also a technocratic approach that resisted the easy answers of the populist right. The grown ups would be back in charge.
A year on, as he marks his first year in office, we might ask: how much difference did Labour’s 2024 election win make in the longer trajectory of British life? Are historians in future likely to say (as they often do about the 1945 and 1979 elections) that it led to political and social transformation?
Of course, it’s too early to say for certain, but not too early to look for signs.
In electoral terms, Labour gained a stonking 174-seat majority in 2024. But this victory came off the back of a remarkably slim vote share of 33.7% in an election with a near-historically low turnout. That suggests an emotional connection had not been made with the electorate (although it also reflected the way that the traditional two-party system is falling apart).
This result has defined Labour since then. It is a government that is undoubtedly in power but with a leader who few really understand. At a conference on the Starmer government held at Anglia Ruskin University in June 2025, I asked the audience how many could produce a one-sentence summary of what the government’s ideology was. Only a few felt they could do so.
In July 2024, Labour promised change. But what did “change” mean? Starmer’s Labour has failed to really spell out its sense of purpose. Starmer admits that he finds ideas difficult. In this sense (and this sense alone) he resembles President George H.W. Bush, who admitted he had trouble with the “vision thing”.
Starmer looks for solutions to particular problems rather than offering a view of the kind of Britain he wants to create. Without some kind of clear ideological purpose, however, the government ends up merely reacting to events whereas it should be shaping the narrative.
The good, the bad, and the not-very-Labour
When Labour returned to power in 1945, 1964 and 1997, there had been extensive discussions about the direction of Labour policy and how it could change society. In 1945, Clement Attlee’s focus was on welfare. Harold Wilson in 1964 drew on Tony Crosland’s revisionist approach to socialism, while in 1997 Tony Blair promised a “third way” in politics, reflecting the ideas of intellectuals such as Anthony Giddens.
This openness to new ideas barely happened between 2020 and 2024 beyond a sense that Labour needed to re-connect with the “red wall” voters it had lost.
On top of this, the government has become known for doing some remarkably un-Labour things. In September 2024, it changed the rules on winter fuel benefits to limit them to only some pensioners (although it has since partially backtracked under immense pressure from Labour MPs).
It continues to resist calls to abolish the two child-benefit cap that restricts some forms of support to families with a maximum of two children, despite clear evidence that doing so is an easy way to reduce child poverty. Most catastrophically, it has been humiliated by a backbench rebellion which forced it to gut its welfare bill.
The government claims it is having to correct the dismal economic inheritance left by the Tories, preventing it from splashing the cash in the way Labour supporters want. Chancellor of the exchequer Rachel Reeves talks about “hard choices” in order to show how disciplined Labour is, thus hopefully reassuring investors and the bond market.
The result was the winter fuel payment crisis, which (despite a u-turn) threatens to become Labour’s poll tax – an iconic policy the electorate refuses to forgive.
Starmer and Reeves demonstrated very limited understanding of the politics of this decision: they seemed prepared to hurt poorer people while apparently leaving the wealthy largely untouched.
Starmer would argue that his government’s ideology has been expressed through its five missions, the most important of which is to stimulate economic growth. The June 2025 spending review was aimed at directing investment particularly towards the north of England and building infrastructure, including investment in transport. The government has also retained its focus on getting to net zero (which suggests a degree of radicalism).
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Another mission that is also more obviously Labour in character is rebuilding the NHS, particularly by reducing waiting lists. Breaking down barriers to opportunity (another mission) has led to investment in education and the creation of breakfast clubs so that all children start the day properly fed.
Labour still talks the language of class, recognising how poorer people face obstacles. Similarly, the focus on stopping crime and making Britain’s streets safe has echoes of both Jim Callaghan and Tony Blair. The government’s preparedness (so far) to negotiate increased pay awards in the public sector also suggests a distinctive Labour approach – evidence that it is not simply offering austerity-lite. Starmer has even started the process of renationalising the railways.
Despite claims that it is maintaining austerity, the government has increased public expenditure by the highest level in decades. In that sense, the 2024 election has led to a new direction for the country.
Labour can make the claim that it is building a state that can respond to the demands of an ageing population, in a challenging global environment, who will be affected by the results of climate change. This (in one sentence) should be its message.
A familiar refrain
If we look at the new government in historical perspective, we should note that it is not unusual for people to complain that Labour lacks ideology or a moral purpose: such things were said about every prime minister the party has produced, from Ramsay MacDonald onwards. Starmer may well seem better in retrospect.
The overall impression of the prime minister, however, is that he is consumed by caution. Much of the time his government seems to chase the talking points put out by Reform UK, the best example being the “island of strangers” speech.
It may be that future historians will argue that the real significance of the 2024 election was not Labour’s capture of seats but the way it exposed the latent support for Nigel Farage’s new party that had been building across the country. However, there are still several years to recover this legacy, should Starmer commit to learning from the mistakes made in the first year of his tenure.
Rohan McWilliam is affiliated with The Labour Party (ordinary member).
The U.S. Capitol is seen shortly after the Senate passed its version of the One Big Beautiful Bill Act on July 1, 2025. Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images
As the U.S. House of Representatives voted to approve President Donald Trump’s sweeping domestic tax and spending package, many critics are wondering how the president retained the loyalty of so many congressional Republicans, with so few defections.
Just three Republican senators – the maximum allowed for the One Big Beautiful Bill Act to still pass – voted against the Senate version of the bill on July 1, 2025. In the House, only two Republicans voted against the bill, which passed the chamber on July 3.
Trump is not the first president to bend Congress to his will to get legislation approved.
Presidential supremacy over the legislative process has been on the rise for decades. But contrary to popular belief, lawmakers are not always simply voting based on blind partisanship.
Increasingly, politicians in the same political party as a president are voting in line with the president because their political futures are as tied up with the president’s reputation as they have ever been.
Even when national polling indicates a policy is unpopular – as is the case with Trump’s budget reconciliation bill, which an estimated 55% of American voters said in June they oppose, according to Quinnipiac University polling – lawmakers in the president’s party have serious motivation to follow the president’s lead.
Or else they risk losing reelection.
Speaker of the House Mike Johnson speaks to reporters at the Capitol building on July 3, 2025. Alex Wong/Getty Images
Lawmakers increasingly partisan on presidential policy
Over the past 50 years, lawmakers in the president’s party have increasingly supported the president’s position on legislation that passes Congress. Opposition lawmakers, meanwhile, are increasingly united against the president’s position.
These patterns are unheard of in the modern Congress. In 2022, for example – a year of significant legislative achievement for the Biden administration – the Democratic majority in Congress voted the same way as the Democratic president 99% of the time. Republicans, meanwhile, voted with Biden just 19% of the time.
Elections can tell us why
Over the past half-century, the two major parties have changed dramatically, both in the absolutist nature of their beliefs and in relation to one another.
Both parties used to be more mixed in their ideological outlooks, for example, with conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans playing key roles in policymaking. This made it easier to form cross-party coalitions, either with or against the president.
A few decades ago, Democrats and Republicans were also less geographically polarized from each other. Democrats were regularly elected to congressional seats in the South, for example, even if those districts supported Republican presidents such as Nixon or Ronald Reagan.
These changes have ushered in a larger phenomenon called political nationalization, in which local political considerations, issues and candidate qualifications have taken a back seat to national politics.
Ticket splitting
From the 1960s through most of the 1980s, between one-quarter and one-half of all congressional districts routinely split tickets – meaning they sent a politician of one party to Congress while supporting a different party for president.
These are the same few districts in Nebraska and New York, for example, that supported former Vice President Kamala Harris for president in 2024 but which also elected a Republican candidate to the House that same year.
Since the Reagan years, however, these types of districts that could simultaneously support a Democratic presidential nominee and Republicans for Congress have gone nearly extinct. Today, only a handful of districts split their tickets, and all other districts select the same party for both offices.
The past two presidential elections, in 2020 and 2024, set the same record low for ticket splitting. Just 16 out of 435 House districts voted for different parties for the House of Representatives and president.
Members of Congress follow their voters
The political success of members of Congress has become increasingly tied up with the success or failure of the president. Because nearly all Republicans hail from districts and states that are very supportive of Trump and his agenda, following the will of their voters increasingly means being supportive of the president’s agenda.
Not doing so risks blowback from their Trump-supporting constituents. A June 2025 Quinnipiac University poll found that 67% of Republicans support the bill, while 87% of Democrats oppose it.
These electoral considerations also help explain the unanimous opposition to Trump’s legislation by the Democrats, nearly all of whom represent districts and states that did not support Trump in 2024.
Thanks to party polarization in ideologies, geography and in the electorate, few Democrats could survive politically while strongly supporting Trump. And few Republicans could do so while opposing him.
But as the importance to voters of mere presidential support increases, the importance of members’ skill in fighting for issues unique to their districts has decreased. This can leave important local concerns about, for example, unique local environmental issues or declining economic sectors unspoken for. At the very least, members have less incentive to speak for them.
Charlie Hunt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Ancient wooden tools found at a site in Gantangqing in southwestern China are approximately 300,000 years old, new dating has shown. Discovered during excavations carried out in 2014–15 and 2018–19, the tools have now been dated by a team of archaeologists, geologists, chronologists (including me) and paleontologists.
The rare wooden tools were found alongside an assortment of animal and plant fossils and stone artifacts.
Taken together, the finds suggest the early humans at Gantangqing were surprisingly sophisticated woodworkers who lived in a rich tropical or subtropical environment where they subsisted by harvesting plants from a nearby lake.
The location of the Gantangqing site and excavation trenches. Liu et al. / Science
Why ancient wooden tools are so rare
Wood usually decomposes relatively rapidly due to microbial activity, oxidation, and weathering. Unlike stone or bone, it rarely survives more than a few centuries.
Wood can only survive for thousands of years or longer if it ends up buried in unusual conditions. Wood can last a long time in oxygen-free environments or extremely dry areas. Charred or fire-hardened wood is also more durable.
At Gantangqing, the wooden objects were excavated from low-oxygen clay-heavy layers of sediment formed on the ancient shoreline of Fuxian Lake.
Wooden implements are extremely rare from the Early Palaeolithic period (the first part of the “stone age” from around 3.3 million years ago until 300,000 years ago or so, in which our hominin ancestors first began to use tools). Indeed, wooden tools more than even 50,000 years old are virtually absent outside Africa and western Eurasia.
As a result, we may have a skewed understanding of Palaeolithic cultures. We may overemphasise the role of stone tools, for example, because they are what has survived.
What wooden tools were found at Gantangqing?
The new excavations at Gantangqing found 35 wooden specimens identified as artificially modified tools. These tools were primarily manufactured from pine wood, with a minority crafted from hardwoods.
Some of the tools had rounded ends, while others had chisel-like thin blades or ridged blades. Of the 35 tools, 32 show marks of intentional modification at their tips, working edges, or bases.
Two large digging implements were identified as heavy-duty digging sticks designed for two-handed use. These are unique forms of digging implements not documented elsewhere, suggesting localised functional adaptations. There were also four distinct hook-shaped tools — likely used for cutting roots — and a series of smaller tools for one-handed use.
Nineteen of the tools showed microscopic traces of scraping from shaping or use, while 17 exhibit deliberately polished surfaces. We also identified further evidence of intensive use, including soil residues stuck to tool tips, parallel grooves or streaks along working edges, and characteristic fracture wear patterns.
The tools from Gantangqing are more complete and show a wider range of functions than those found at contemporary sites such as Clacton in the UK and Florisbad in South Africa.
The team used several techniques to figure out the age of the wooden tools. There is no way to determine their age directly, but we can date the sediment in which they were found.
Using a technique called infrared stimulated luminescence, we analysed more than 10,000 individual grains of minerals from different layers. This showed the sediment was deposited roughly between 350,000 and 200,000 years ago.
Dating the different layers of sediment excavated at the site produced a detailed timeline. Liu et al. / Science
We also used different techniques to date a mammal tooth found in one of the layers to roughly 288,000 years old. This was consistent with the mineral results.
Next we used mathematical modelling to bring all the dating results together. Our model indicated that the layers containing stone tools and wooden implements date from 360–300,000 years ago to 290–250,000 years ago.
What was the environment like?
Our research indicates the ancient humans at Gantangqing inhabited a warm, humid, tropical or subtropical environment. Pollen extracted from the sediments reveals 40 plant families that confirm this climate.
Plant fossils further verify the presence of subtropical-to-tropical flora dominated by trees, lianas, shrubs and herbs. Wet-environment plants show the local surroundings were a lakeside or wetlands.
Animal fossils also fit this picture, including rhinoceros and other mammals, turtles and various birds. The ecosystem was likely a mosaic of grassland, thickets and forests. Evidence of diving ducks confirms the lake must have been at least 2–3 metres deep during human occupation.
The site contained evidence of plants such as storable pine nuts and hazelnuts, fruit trees such as kiwi, raspberry-like berries, grapes, edible herbs and fern fronds.
There were also aquatic plants that would have provided edible leaves, seeds, tubers and rhizomes. These were likely dug up from shallow mud near the shore, using wooden tools.
These findings suggest the Gantangqing hominins may have made expeditions to the lake shore, carrying purpose-made wooden digging sticks to harvest underground food sources. To do this, they would have had to anticipate seasonal plant distributions, know exactly what parts of different plants were edible, and produce specialised tools for different tasks.
Why the Gantangqing site is important
The wooden implements from Gantangqing represent the earliest known evidence for the use of digging sticks and for the exploitation of underground plant storage organs such as tubers within the Oriental biogeographic realm. Our discovery shows the use of sophisticated wood technology in a very different environmental context from what has been seen at sites of similar age in Europe and Africa.
The find significantly expands our understanding of early hominin woodworking capabilities.
The hominins who lived at Gantangqing appear to have lived a heavily plant-based subsistence lifestyle. This is in contrast to colder, more northern settings where tools of similar age have been found (such as Schöningen in Germany), where hunting large mammals was the key to survival.
The site also shows how important wood – and perhaps other organic materials – were to “stone age” hominins. These wooden artifacts show far more sophisticated manufacturing skill than the relative rudimentary stone tools found at sites of similar age across East and Southeast Asia.
The excavation, curation, and research of the Gantangqing site were supported by
National Cultural Heritage Administration (China), Yunnan Provincial Institute of
Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Yuxi Municipal Bureau of Culture and Tourism,
Chengjiang Municipal Bureau of Culture and Tourism, Australian Research Council
(ARC) Discovery Projects, Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Hong Kong Research Grants Council (RGC), National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC).
Source: The Conversation – France in French (3) – By Morgane Dujmovic, Chargée de recherche CNRS, Géographe et politiste spécialiste des frontières et migrations, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)
Cet article est le troisième d’une série en quatre volets consacrée à un travail de recherche mené à bord de l’Ocean Viking, navire de sauvetage de l’ONG SOS Méditerranée. Morgane Dujmovic, géographe et politiste, a recueilli les récits de 110 personnes secourues en Méditerranée centrale pour mieux comprendre leur parcours. Dans cet article, elle revient sur leur parcours en mer. Le dernier épisode est ici.
Les dangers de la Libye ne sont généralement découverts que lorsque les personnes en migration y entrent avec l’espoir de trouver une vie décente et du travail.
Périr en Libye ou prendre la mer
« Mon tout premier jour à Tripoli, j’ai su que j’avais pris la pire décision de ma vie. En Libye, ce n’est pas facile de rentrer, mais c’est moins facile encore de sortir ! »,
explique Koné, lors de notre rencontre à Ancône (Italie, côte adriatique).
En effet, rares sont les personnes qui parviennent à transiter moins d’un mois en Libye. La plupart de celles et ceux que nous avons rencontrés sur l’Ocean Viking (OV) (57,9 %) y ont totalisé entre un et six mois. Certaines s’y sont retrouvées piégées plus de deux ans – jusqu’à sept années cumulées, pour un participant soudanais.
Dans le panorama statistique offert par l’enquête, on voit se dessiner des routes et des configurations migratoires différentes, les longs séjours subis en Libye concernant surtout les personnes des pays les plus pauvres et déchirés par des guerres.
On voit surtout que les femmes sont bloquées plus durablement en Libye : celles que nous avons rencontrées y ont passé en moyenne quinze mois et demi, contre huit mois et demi pour les hommes. On peut y voir l’effet des mécanismes de contrainte et de violence qui s’appliquent spécifiquement aux femmes en migration en Méditerranée, comme l’a parfaitement décrit la géographe Camille Schmoll dans son ouvrage les Damnées de la mer (2022).
Dans les conditions de survie qui ont été rapportées, la décision de prendre la mer malgré les risques de la traversée peut se résumer ainsi : préférer le risque de mourir maintenant plutôt que la certitude de perdre la vie à petit feu.
« Sept mois » : l’expérience de la Libye de Mohamad
Traduction : Amine Boudani et Rafik Arfaoui. Fourni par l’auteur
Sur sa carte, Mohamad a bien montré ce glissement. On y voit les violences cumulatives qu’il a rencontrées sur son parcours de l’est à l’ouest de la côte libyenne : la captivité à Tobruk chez un « marchand d’humains », l’enfermement et le vol à Benghazi, le racisme et la xénophobie à Ajdabiya, les mauvais traitements à Zouara, d’où il a finalement réussi à fuir par la mer.
Son illustration montre, de droite à gauche, l’enchaînement de faits qui l’a conduit de l’enfermement au bateau.
Pour parvenir à prendre la mer, il faut toutefois réunir une somme d’argent considérable. Les personnes participantes mentionnent des emprunts à leur famille de 2 000, 6 000, voire 10 000 dollars, pour s’acheter une place sur un bateau. Celle-ci est parfois obtenue à la suite de travaux forcés depuis les prisons plus ou moins officielles, ou contre la promesse d’être celui qui conduira le bateau.
Lorsque les tentatives se heurtent à des interceptions suivies de refoulements vers la Libye, il faut rajouter à la somme initiale :
« Ils m’ont escroqué d’abord 2 000 dollars, puis 3 000 et, la troisième fois, j’ai payé 5 000 dollars. »
Game house, pièce issue d’un atelier cartographique sur le pont de l’OV. Alisha Vaya/SOS Méditerranée, Fourni par l’auteur
Des personnes participantes à l’étude ont également décrit leurs conditions de vie dans la game house (les bâtiments collectifs où les personnes ayant payé leur traversée attendent le signal du départ). Ces séjours durent de plusieurs jours à plusieurs semaines, avec des approvisionnements et modalités variables selon les circuits et les montants payés pour arriver là. Mais toutes témoignent d’une même découverte à leur première tentative de traversée : celle de la nature des embarcations, impropres à la navigation et surchargées. Comme l’a expliqué Koné, à ce stade, il est généralement trop tard pour faire demi-tour :
« On a démarré d’une plage à côté de Tripoli, à 4 heures du matin, on nous a fait courir sur l’eau : “Go, go !” C’était trop tard pour changer d’avis. »
Perte de repères dans la nuit de la mer
Le départ depuis les plages libyennes se fait souvent de nuit, et ce n’est qu’au matin qu’on découvre l’immensité de la mer. L’enquête par questionnaire a justement permis d’étudier les perceptions des personnes placées sur ces embarcations en détresse au cours des scènes de sauvetage. Le premier résultat qui interpelle est leur perte de repères au moment où elles sont secourues.
L’un des participants a ainsi mentionné « la simple joie d’avoir trouvé quelque chose dans l’eau », en se remémorant sa première impression à la vue de l’Ocean Viking à l’horizon. D’autres participants ont décrit à quel point leurs perceptions étaient troublées par les conditions de navigation ou par la nature même des embarcations, comme cette personne bangladaise qui avait pris la mer dans la cale d’un bateau en bois :
« J’étais à l’intérieur du bateau en bois, je ne pouvais rien voir ou entendre. Je ne croyais pas que c’était un sauvetage jusqu’à ce que je sorte et voie avec mes propres yeux. »
Charlie, le SAR Team Leader qui a coordonné ce sauvetage, se souvient de sa propre stupéfaction à la découverte des 68 personnes à bord, sur une embarcation prévue pour 20 :
« À mesure qu’on les transférait sur nos RHIB (bateaux semi-rigides), d’autres sortaient de dessous le pont, cachés. »
En m’appuyant sur le questionnaire, les ateliers cartographiques et des entretiens ciblés, j’ai tenté de reconstituer l’espace-temps de ce sauvetage avec les personnes secourues et des membres de l’équipage.
« Sur le terrain : Quand les cartes racontent l’exil », avec Morgane Dujmovic, The Conversation France, 2025.
« Ils retournaient droit vers Tripoli ! »
Jérôme, le coordinateur adjoint de la recherche des secours à bord (ou Deputy SARCo) de l’OV, a confirmé le cas d’une embarcation « extrêmement surchargée », comme l’indique le rapport final de sauvetage :
« Là, ils étaient chargés ! L’alerte nous annonçait 55 personnes à bord, et nous on en a trouvé 68, parce qu’il y a ceux qui étaient sous le pont, cachés ! »
Dans le poste de commande de l’OV, écran de veille à l’appui, nous avons retracé les positions du bateau au fil de sa recherche. Ce matin-là, l’alerte avait été donnée par Alarm Phone, une ligne téléphonique citoyenne qui opère en continu depuis les deux rives de la Méditerranée, notamment pour relayer et suivre les cas de détresse.
« On a reçu une position à 6 h 19. On a tenté d’appeler Tripoli plusieurs fois, ça ne répondait pas. On a dit : “On y va quand même, on est très inquiets.” On a lancé le mail officiel disant qu’on y allait. »
Une fois ces démarches accomplies auprès des centres de coordination et de sauvetage en mer, l’OV s’est dirigé vers la position donnée, dans les eaux internationales au large de la ville libyenne de Zouara.
Peu de temps après, nos radios réglées sur le canal de veille ont grésillé :
« On réveille tout le monde en général quand on arrive dans les dix milles, c’est la distance avec laquelle on peut les trouver avec les jumelles. Et à 6 heures, il commence à y avoir les premières lueurs de l’aube. »
La recherche de l’embarcation en détresse s’est toutefois compliquée :
« Avec les premières données, le point de départ et la deuxième position, on avait une indication sur la vitesse : on pensait qu’ils faisaient 5 nœuds. Donc on s’est dit qu’on allait les trouver à cette position. Sauf qu’une fois arrivés, on a commencé à s’arracher les yeux : ils n’étaient pas à la position ! »
Reconstitution d’un cas de détresse en mer dans le poste de commande. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Les calculs opérés dans cette phase de recherche doivent en effet intégrer des facteurs multiples, parmi lesquels les différentes positions reçues (quand il y en a), mais aussi la présence ou l’absence d’un moteur fonctionnel et, enfin, les conditions météorologiques et maritimes, comme l’a expliqué Jérôme :
« Ce que je pense, c’est qu’ils ont dû se perdre et se dérouter : en ayant la mer, le vent dans la figure, tu ne sais pas où tu vas. Je pense qu’ils ne voyaient rien de ce qu’ils faisaient. Ils étaient en train de lutter avec tout ça. »
Confirmant les hypothèses de Jérôme, beaucoup des personnes secourues ce jour-là sont arrivées sur le pont de l’OV en souffrant de déshydratation et de mal de mer :
« Comme on l’a vu sur les photos, ils avaient vraiment beaucoup de houle et de vent qui leur arrivait dans la figure. Plus tu vas vers le large, plus tu subis la mer. »
Devant les zooms et dézooms opérés par Jérôme à l’écran, je comprends en images les implications d’un cas de détresse en mer au large de la Libye :
« En plus, là, le vent suffisait à les faire dériver : ils retournaient droit vers Tripoli ! »
« Ces bateaux ne devraient même pas exister »
Malgré les difficultés décrites pour ce sauvetage, il correspond à une opération « à faible risque ». Des événements plus critiques sont régulièrement rapportés par les équipages et par les personnes secourues.
Au fil du temps, les équipes de sauvetage ont notamment vu la qualité des embarcations se dégrader, comme l’explique Jérôme :
« Il y a eu les “wooden boats” (bateaux en bois), puis les “rubber boats” (bateaux pneumatiques). Maintenant, les pires c’est les “iron boats” (bateaux en métal). »
En 2023, des embarcations en métal soudées à la hâte ont commencé à faire leur apparition au large de la Tunisie. Pour les marins aguerris qui forment les équipes de sauvetage, comme Charlie, l’existence même de telles embarcations en pleine mer est difficilement concevable :
« Ces bateaux ne devraient même pas exister. Ils ont des structures extrêmement faibles. Ils sont faits à la main, mal et vite faits ; ce sont juste des plaques en métal, soudées. Ils n’ont pas de stabilité. Ce sont comme des cercueils flottants. »
Pour ces professionnels de la mer, l’inquiétude est réelle : « Il faut que nous soyons préparés à ça. » D’une part, les bords acérés des bateaux en métal peuvent abîmer les bateaux semi-rigides (RHIB) de l’ONG, avec le risque de compromettre l’ensemble de l’opération de sauvetage – comme cela s’est produit en septembre 2023, à l’issue d’une patrouille sur la route tunisienne. Les RHIB avaient alors été protégés « avec les moyens du bord », à l’aide des tapis trouvés sur le navire alors qu’il était en opération en mer.
D’autre part, chaque nouveau type d’embarcation implique des techniques très spécifiques. L’approche et le positionnement des bateaux semi-rigides autour de l’embarcation en détresse (ou « danse des RHIB »), les modes de communication propices au maintien du calme, les soins d’urgence durant le transfert vers le bateau-mère : tout cela est étudié avec minutie afin d’anticiper un maximum de scénarios.
Dans la salle de repos de l’équipage, face à la maquette construite par les anciens de SOS Méditerranée pour s’entraîner aux simulations, Charlie m’a longuement expliqué les techniques développées pour approcher chaque type d’embarcation en détresse, selon qu’elles sont en fibres de verre, en bois, en pneumatique ou en métal.
Dans le dernier cas, celui d’un bateau en métal, Charlie a insisté sur les implications critiques d’un sauvetage qui tournerait mal :
« Les bateaux en métal peuvent chavirer à tout moment et couler rapidement, à pic. Dans ce cas, la scène ressemblerait à ça : un massive MOB ! »,
c’est-à-dire un « Man Over Board » (« homme à la mer ») de grande ampleur, impliquant le passage par-dessus bord d’un nombre important de personnes. C’est ce que sont venus illustrer les petits objets bleus dispersés sur sa maquette.
Simulation d’un « massive MOB » avec un bateau en métal. Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Se noyer plutôt qu’être capturé
Une autre donnée a rendu les activités de sauvetage de plus en plus ingérables au fil du temps : les activités des milices et « garde-côtes libyens » dans la SRR (Search and Rescue Region) libyenne, c’est-à-dire la région libyenne de recherche et sauvetage en mer créée en 2018 avec le support de l’Union européenne.
Deux autorités y sont chargées de la surveillance côtière : la garde côtière libyenne (LCG) dépendant du ministère de la défense, et l’administration générale de la sécurité côtière (GACS), rattachée au ministère de l’intérieur.
Les multiples agissements illégaux et violents rapportés au sujet des acteurs libyens en mer ont justifié l’emploi de plus en plus courant de guillemets pour les désigner, ou de l’expression « so-called Libyan Coast Guard ». Pourtant, ces groupes reçoivent un soutien abondant de l’Union européenne et de plusieurs de ses États membres.
À bord de l’OV, les témoignages ne tarissent pas sur les manœuvres périlleuses des « garde-côtes libyens » visant explicitement à faire échouer les sauvetages, comme l’a soulevé Charlie :
« Je les ai vus faire des manœuvres folles, essayer de rendre le sauvetage aussi dur que possible, en nous empêchant de secourir, en criant, en hurlant. »
Plusieurs microscènes de ce type ont été reconstituées :
« Ils conduisent le plus près et le plus rapidement possible pour créer des vagues. Ils se mettent sur notre route, interfèrent, près du bateau-mère. »
Quand les acteurs libyens sont sur scène, l’explosion d’émotions liées à l’arrivée des secours peut se transformer en scène de panique et affecter les chances de réussite du sauvetage.
Ce sont 31,4 % des personnes participantes à l’étude qui ont ainsi exprimé une perception négative à la vue d’un navire à l’horizon, associée à la peur d’être interceptées et refoulées par les acteurs libyens en mer :
« Au loin, nous ne savions pas si c’était un bateau de sauvetage ou les garde-côtes libyens. C’était un stress énorme à bord, les gens criaient et les enfants pleuraient. Nous étions prêts à sauter. »
En effet, la présence des autorités libyennes est souvent perçue comme un danger plus grand que le risque de noyade, comme l’a résumé l’un des participants :
« Pour moi, le danger ce n’est pas la mer, ce sont les autorités libyennes. »
Ce positionnement s’explique aisément pour les personnes qui ont déjà expérimenté une ou plusieurs interceptions. Certaines des personnes participantes à l’étude ont mentionné des violences exercées au cours de leur refoulement vers la Libye, telles que des coups, des menaces armées, des vols d’argent, des privations d’eau et de nourriture, voire des actes mortels :
« La première fois que j’ai pris la mer, les Libyens ont tiré sur le moteur, le carburant a brûlé et explosé et les gens près de moi sont morts. »
En outre, la proximité des « garde-côtes libyens » avec des milices ou réseaux mafieux est notoire. L’un des répondants à l’étude a décrit en ces termes l’administration générale de la sécurité côtière (GACS) :
« Il y a toujours un risque que le GACS, un groupe armé avec des masques, vous mette en prison. »
Les interceptions sont généralement suivies de périodes de détention arbitraire en Libye, dans les conditions inhumaines détaillées précédemment (voir la partie 2 de cette série) :
« J’ai essayé de traverser quatre fois mais j’ai été attrapée et mise en prison avec mon enfant ; j’ai beaucoup souffert. »
Reconstitution d’une interférence des acteurs libyens (en bleu) à proximité du bateau-mère (en rouge). Morgane Dujmovic, Fourni par l’auteur
Ces faits rapportés par les équipages et personnes secourues sont largement étayés par les organisations internationales, humanitaires ou les collectifs associatifs qui suivent la situation en Méditerranée centrale. Dans son rapport de mission d’enquête de 2021, le Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations unies laisse peu de doutes quant à la chaîne de causalité qui relie les interceptions en mer et la traite des personnes migrantes en Libye :
« Les garde-côtes libyens procèdent […] à l’interception de l’embarcation dans des conditions violentes ou périlleuses, qui se soldent parfois par des morts. […] Les garde-côtes libyens confisquent les effets personnels des migrants à bord. Une fois débarqués, les migrants sont soit transférés dans des centres de détention, soit portés disparus, et il semblerait que certains soient vendus à des trafiquants. […] Depuis que des bateaux sont refoulés en Méditerranée, les autorités libyennes ont été averties du caractère généralisé et systématique des interceptions périlleuses effectuées en mer et des violences commises dans les centres de détention. Plutôt que d’enquêter sur ces cas et de remédier à ces pratiques, les autorités libyennes ont continué à intercepter les migrants et à les placer en détention. »
En croisant ces scènes de sauvetage maritime avec le vaste système d’exploitation organisé depuis les lieux de détention en Libye, on comprend que l’interception en mer par les « garde-côtes libyens » relève d’une stratégie de capture, et que la Méditerranée centrale est devenue le lieu d’un corps à corps pour la sauvegarde de la vie et de la dignité humaine.
Morgane Dujmovic ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.
When asked what MAGA means to him, Trump, in a 2017 interview with The Washington Post said, “To me, it meant jobs. It meant industry, and meant military strength. It meant taking care of our veterans. It meant so much.”
But Democratic leaders have a different interpretation of the slogan.
Former President Bill Clinton in 2016 said of MAGA: “That message where ‘I’ll give you America great again’ is if you’re a white Southerner, you know exactly what it means, don’t you? What it means is ‘I’ll give you an economy you had 50 years ago, and I’ll move you back up on the social totem pole and other people down.”
While MAGA is ubiquitous, little is known about what it means to the American public. Ten years on, what do Americans think when they hear or read this phrase?
Based on the analysis of Americans’ explanations of what “Make America Great Again” means to them, we found evidence suggesting that the public’s views of MAGA mirror the perspectives offered by both Trump and Clinton.
Republicans interpret this phrase as a call for the renewal of the U.S. economy and military might, as well as a return to “traditional” values, especially those relating to gender roles and gender identities. Democrats, we found, view MAGA as a call for a return to white supremacy and growing authoritarianism.
Donald Trump rides an escalator to a press event to announce his candidacy for the U.S. presidency at Trump Tower on June 16, 2015, in New York City. Christopher Gregory/Getty Images
The survey question was open-ended, allowing respondents to define this phrase in any way they saw fit. We used AI-based thematic analysis and qualitative reading of the responses to better understand how Democrats and Republicans define the slogan.
For our AI-based thematic analysis, we instructed ChatGPT to provide three overarching themes most touched upon by Democratic and Republican respondents. This approach follows recent research demonstrating that, when properly instructed, ChatGPT reliably identifies broad themes in collections of texts.
Republican interpretation of MAGA
Our analysis shows that Republicans view the slogan as representing the “American dream.” In part, MAGA is about restoring the nation’s pride and economic strength. Reflecting these themes, one Republican respondent wrote that MAGA means “encouraging manufacturers to hire Americans and strengthen the economy. Making the USA self-sufficient as it once was.”
MAGA is also closely related among Republicans with an “America First” policy. This is partly about having a strong military – a common theme among Republican respondents – and “making America the superpower” again, one respondent wrote.
Republicans also wrote that putting America first means emphasizing strict enforcement of immigration laws against “illegals” and cutting off foreign aid. For example, one Republican respondent said that MAGA meant “stopping illegals at the border, ending freebies for illegals, adding more police and building a strong military.”
Finally, Republicans see the slogan as calling for a return to “traditional” values. They expressed a strong desire to reverse cultural shifts that Republican respondents perceive as a threat.
As one Republican put it, MAGA “means going back to where men would join the military, women were home raising healthy minded children and it was easy to be successful, the crime rate was extremely low and it used to be safe for kids to hang out on the streets with other kids and even walk themselves places.”
Another Republican made the connection between MAGA and traditional gender roles even more explicit, highlighting the link between MAGA and opposition to transgender rights: “MAGA people know there are only 2 sexes and a man can never be a woman. If you believe otherwise you are destroying AMERICA.”
A banner showing a picture of President Donald Trump is displayed outside of the U.S. Department of Agriculture building on June 3, 2025, in Washington, D.C. Kevin Carter/Getty Images
Democratic MAGA views
Democrats have a very different understanding of the MAGA slogan. Many Democrats view MAGA as a white supremacist movement designed to protect the status of white people and undermine the civil rights of marginalized groups.
One Democrat argued that “‘Make America Great Again’ is a standard borne by people who’ve seen a decrease in the potency of their privilege (see: cisgendered white men) and wish to see their privilege restored or strengthened. In essence, it’s a chant for all racist, fascist and otherwise bigoted actors to unite under.”
Another Democrat wrote that MAGA was a call to “take us backwards as a society in regards to women’s, minority’s, and LGBTQ people’s rights … It would take us to a time when only White men ruled.”
Democrats also view MAGA as a form of nostalgia for a heavily mythologized past. Many Democratic respondents described the past longed for by Republicans as a “myth” or “fairytale.” Others argued that this mythologized past, though appealing on the surface, was repressive for many Americans.
One Democrat said that MAGA meant “returning America to a fantasy version of the past with the goal of advancing the success of white, straight, wealthy men by any means necessary and almost always to the detriment of other segments of the population.”
A person holds a ‘Trump won’t erase us’ sign while walking in the WorldPride Parade on June 7, 2025, in Washington, D.C. Kevin Carter/Getty Images
Finally, many Democrats interpret the slogan as reflecting an authoritarian cult of personality. In this vein, a Democratic respondent said of MAGA, “It’s a call to arms for MAGA cult members, who believe that Trump and the Republicans party will somehow improve their lives by targeting people and policies they don’t like, even when it is against their best interests and any rational thought process.”
While some Republicans expressed racist, xenophobic or anti-trans sentiments in their understanding of MAGA, some Democrats revealed outright condescension toward MAGA believers.
“The MAGA’s are brainwashed, idiotic members of society who know nothing more than to follow the lead of an idiotic president who has the vocabulary of a 3rd grader,” one Democrat wrote. “It is nonsense idiots parrot,” another respondent said.
In all, in the 10 years since Donald Trump burst onto the political scene, much has been written about the conflicting visions of past, present and future at the heart of America’s partisan divisions.
With the Trump administration’s proclaimed commitment to return the U.S. to its “golden age” and a strong resistance to his efforts, only time will tell which vision of America will prevail.
Jesse Rhodes has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, and Demos. He is a member of the American Civil Liberties Union.
Douglas Rice has received funding from the National Science Foundation.
Adam Eichen, Gregory Wall, and Tatishe Nteta do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Satellite photo of rural Saga prefecture, Japan, showing farmland disuse, consolidation and intensification and urban development.Google Earth Pro, CC BY-NC-ND
Since 1970, 73% of global wildlife has been lost, while the world’s population has doubled to 8 billion. Research shows this isn’t a coincidence but that population growth is causing a catastrophic decline in biodiversity.
Yet a turning point in human history is underway. According to UN projections, the number of people in 85 countries will be shrinking by 2050, mostly in Europe and Asia. By 2100, the human population is on course for global decline. Some say this will be good for the environment.
In 2010, Japan became the first Asian country to begin depopulating. South Korea, China and Taiwan are following close behind. In 2014, Italy was the first in southern Europe, followed by Spain, Portugal and others. We call Japan and Italy “depopulation vanguard countries” on account of their role as forerunners for understanding possible consequences in their regions.
Given assumptions that depopulation could help deliver environmental restoration, we have been working with colleagues Yang Li and Taku Fujita to investigate whether Japan is experiencing what we have termed a biodiversity “depopulation dividend” or something else.
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Since 2003, hundreds of citizen scientists have been collecting biodiversity data for the Japanese government’s Monitoring Sites 1,000 project. We used 1.5 million recorded species observations from 158 sites.
These were in wooded, agricultural and peri-urban (transitional spaces on outskirts of cities) areas. We compared these observations against changes in local population, land use and surface temperature for periods of five to 20 years.
Our study, published in the journal Nature Sustainability, includes birds, butterflies, fireflies, frogs and 2,922 native and non-native plants. These landscapes have experienced the greatest depopulation since the 1990s.
Due to the size of our database, choice of sites and the positioning of Japan as a depopulation vanguard for north-east Asia, this is one of the largest studies of its kind.
Japan is not Chernobyl
Biodiversity continued to decrease in most of the areas we studied, irrespective of population increase or decrease. Only where the population remains steady is biodiversity more stable. However, the population of these areas is ageing and will decline soon, bringing them in line with the areas already seeing biodiversity loss.
Unlike in Chernobyl, where a sudden crisis caused an almost total evacuation which stimulated startling accounts of wildlife revival, Japan’s population loss has developed gradually. Here, a mosaic pattern of changing land use emerges amid still-functioning communities.
While most farmland remains under cultivation, some falls into disuse or abandonment, some is sold for urban development or transformed into intensively farmed landscapes. This prevents widespread natural succession of plant growth or afforestation (planting of new trees) that would enrich biodiversity.
In these areas, humans are agents of ecosystem sustainability. Traditional farming and seasonal livelihood practices, such as flooding, planting and harvesting of rice fields, orchard and coppice management, and property upkeep, are important for maintaining biodiversity. So depopulation can be destructive to nature. Some species thrive, but these are often non-native ones that present other challenges, such as the drying and choking of formerly wet rice paddy fields by invasive grasses.
Vacant and derelict buildings, underused infrastructure and socio-legal issues (such as complicated inheritance laws and land taxes, lack of local authority administrative capacity, and high demolition and disposal costs) all compound the problem.
An abandoned house, or akiya, in Niigata prefecture, Japan. Peter Matanle, CC BY-NC-ND
Even as the number of akiya (empty, disused or abandoned houses) increases to nearly 15% of the nation’s housing stock, the construction of new dwellings continues remorselessly. In 2024, more than 790,000 were built, due partly to Japan’s changing population distribution and household composition. Alongside these come roads, shopping malls, sports facilities, car parks and Japan’s ubiquitous convenience stores. All in all, wildlife has less space and fewer niches to inhabit, despite there being fewer people.
What can be done?
Data shows deepening depopulation in Japan and north-east Asia. Fertility rates remain low in most developed countries. Immigration provides only a short-term softer landing, as countries currently supplying migrants, such as Vietnam, are also on course for depopulation.
Our research demonstrates that biodiversity recovery needs to be actively managed, especially in depopulating areas. Despite this there are only a few rewilding projects in Japan. To help these develop, local authorities could be given powers to convert disused land into locally managed community conservancies.
Nature depletion is a systemic risk to global economic stability. Ecological risks, such as fish stock declines or deforestation, need better accountability from governments and corporations. Rather than spend on more infrastructure for an ever-dwindling population, for example, Japanese companies could invest in growing local natural forests for carbon credits.
Depopulation is emerging as a 21st-century global megatrend. Handled well, depopulation could help reduce the world’s most pressing environmental problems, including resource and energy use, emissions and waste, and nature conservation. But it needs to be actively managed for those opportunities to be realised.
Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?
Kei Uchida received funding from JSPS Kakenhi 20K20002.
Masayoshi K. Hiraiwa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
